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LIBRARY 


UNIVERSITY  OF  CALIFORNIA. 
%eceived    dDco.    T.'L.         .  iSgT^ 

Accessions  No. HQl'^i^    .  Class  No. 

Main  Lib, 


.^ 


'^X^^  OF  THB     ^' 

[UFIVBRSIT 


CAVALRY THE    REGIMENTAL    STANDARD 


LIST   OF   AUTHOKS 


Brigadier -General  Wesley  Merritt,  U.S.A.: 

THE    AllMY    OF    THE    UNITED    STATES 3 

General  Viscount  Wolsele>/,  K.P.,Etc.: 

THE    STANDING    ARMY    OF    GREAT    BRITAIN         ....       59 

Lieutenayit-  Colonel  Exner : 

THE    GERMAN    ARMY 99 

General  Lewal : 

THE    FRENCH    ARMY 163 

A  Russian  General: 

THE    RUSSIAN    ARMY 219 

General  Baron  Von  Kuhn : 

THE    AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN    ARMY 263 

G.  Goiran,  General  Staff  Colonel : 

THE    ITALIAN    ARMY 313 

Thomas  A.  Janvier : 

THE    MEXICAN    ARMY 361 

Lieutenant-  Colonel  Exner  : 

APPENDIX — THE    MILITARY    SITUATION    IN    EUROPE        .    399 


ILLUSTRATIONS 


PAGE 

CATALRY — THE  REGIMENTAL  STANDARD Frontispiece 

INFANTRY ADVANCE- GUARD Y 

quartermaster-general's    department READY    FOR   THE    MARCH    ....  11 

MEDICAL    DEPARTMENT THE    RED-CROSS    AMBULANCE 19 

THE    ENGINEER    CORPS — INSTRUCTION    IN    FIELD    FORTIFICATION 27 

ARTILLERY A    LIGHT    BATTERY 37 

THE    RECRUITING    SERGEANT     ...             48 

BRITISH    INFANTRY    SOLDIER    WITH    NEW    MAGAZINE    RIFLE 61 

CROMWELL    AT    MARSTON    MOOR 67 

OFFICER  OF    THE   GUARDS    IN    THEIR  FIRST  AFRICAN    CAMPAIGN   (TANGIER,   1686)  71 

OFFICER    OF  THE  GUARDS   IN  THEIR  LAST  AFRICAN   CAMPAIGN  (mETEMNEH,   1886)  75 

BENGAL    LANCERS — INDIAN    NATIVE    CAVALRY 79 

THE    DUKE    OF    MARLBOROUGH    ON    THE  MORNING    OF    MALPLAQUET 83 

ROYAL    HORSE    ARTILLERY    LIMBERING    UP 89 

THE    NEW    TWELVE-POUNDER    BREECH-LOADING    FIELD    GUN 93 

GENERAL    AND    STAFF    OFFICER 103 

JAGER 106 

INFANTRY    IN    MARCHING    ORDER •      ...  109 

UHLANS , 113 

UHLAN    TRUMPETER 116 

DRAGOON 119 

HUSSARS 123 

CUIRASSIERS 127 

FIELD    AKTILLERY 131 

HORSE    ARTILLERY 135 

THE    EMPEROR    REVIEWING    CUIRASSIERS    OF    THE    GUARD 139 

PIONEER 145 

GRENADIER    OF    THE    GUARD    (FUSILEER    BATTALION) 151 

GRENADIERS    OF    THE    GUARD 155 

CUIRASSIERS , 165 

A    GENDARME 170 

SFAHIS 178 

A    ZOUAVE 175 

CHASSEURS    D'aFRIQUE 177 


viii  ILLUSTRATIONS 

I'AGK 

DRAGOONS    ARMED    WITH    LANCKS       179 

INFANTRY 181 

ALPINE    CHASSEUR 185 

TCRCOS 189 

HUSSARS 193 

GENERAL    AND    STAFF 197 

FIELD    ARTILLERY 201 

TELOCIPEDIST 205 

BALLOON    CARTS        207 

CHASSEUR    A    CHEVAI 211 

CHASSEURS    A    PIED 214 

OLD    GRENADIER 220 

DEPARTURE    OF    THE    CONSCRIPT ■  223 

INFANTRY'    OF    THE    IMPERIAL    GUARD 225 

SENTRY — THE    PAUL    REGIMENT 229 

AN    OLD    VETERAN 231 

DRAGOONS 234 

CHEVALIKR    GUARD 237 

CIRCASSIAN    COSSACKS    OP    THE    EMPEROR'S    ESCORT 239 

FIELD    ARTILLERY 241 

OFFICER    OF   THE    CIRCASSIAN    COSSACKS 245 

A    COSSACK    POST 247 

COSSACKS    OF   THE    IMPERIAL    GUARD 249 

OFFICER    OF    THE    TURKOMAN    MILITIA 253 

GENERAL    SKOBELEFP 255 

THE    CROSS    OF    ST.  GEORGE 258 

HALBERDIER  (eMPEROR's    BODY-GUARD) 263 

THE    EMPEROR    AND    STAFF 265 

HUNGARIAN    INFANTRY 269 

AUSTRIAN    INFANTRY 273 

FIELD    CHASSEURS 277 

UHLAN  (one    TEAR    VOLUNTEERS) 281 

jager  offickrs 285 

dragoons 287 

HUSSARS , 291 

FIELD    ARTILLERY 293 

TRAIN 297 

BOSNIANS 299 

emperor's    body-guard — AUSTRIAN 303 

emperor's    body-guard — HUNGARIAN 305 

fortress  artillery 307 

torpedo-boat 309 

king  humbert  as  gkneral  of  the  army 317 

bersaglieri 321 

infantry  of  the  line 325 

foot  carabineer 329 

horse  carabineers 333 


ILLUSTRATIONS  ix 

I'AGK 

ALPINE    INFANTRY 337 

OFFICER   OF   CUIRASSIERS 341 

CAVALRY "royal    PIEDMONT    REGIMENT" 343 

LIGHT    CAVALRY 346 

CAVALRY  OFFICERS 349 

MOUNTAIN    ARTILLERY 351 

FIELD    ARTILLERY 355 

ARTILLERY    SERGEANT 361 

A    REGIMENTAL    SCOUT ; 363 

UNDRESS    ENGINEER 367 

FULL-DRESS    ENGINEER 371 

TYPE   OF   OFFICER — "  AWFULLY    FRENCH  " 374 

DRUM    CORPS 375 

LIEUTENANT,  ENGINEER    BATTALION 377 

LOOKING   FOR    DESERTERS 379 

BUGLER   OF   CAVALRY 383 

A    GENDARME 386 

A    RURAL 387 

INFANTRY    OF   THE    LINE 389 

CAVALRY    OF    THE    LINE 393 

STABLE    CALL    AT    AN    ARTILLERY    BARRACK 395 


THE  ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 


>J*^   OP  THE^.^ 

;UBri7BRSITT) 


HE  organization  of  the  arm}^  of  the  United 
States  depends  on  the  law-making  power 
of  the  nation — Congress.  Its  strength  has 
hitherto  been  regulated  by  the  apparent 
necessities  of  the  country,  being  at  times 
reduced  to  a  few  thousand  men,  while  at 
others  it  has  numbered  more  than  a  mill- 
ion. Its  history,  on  the  whole,  is  one  to 
"^  be  proud  of,  though,  through  no  fault  for 

which  it  call  be  said  to  be  responsible,  there  is  much  in  its 
record  that  reflects  discredit  on  the  country.  Its  recruit- 
ment depends  ordinarily  on  voluntary  enlistment,  and  its 
efficiency  on  the  ability  of  its  officers  and  the  length  of 
time  the  men  have  been  in  the  service,  subjected  to  dis- 
cipline and  drill.  With  the  officers  of  the  army  as  a  body 
the  history  of  our  last  two  wars  shows  there  is  no  short- 
coming. Whether  graduates  of  the  Military  Academy — 
the  best  for  the  purpose  in  the  world  —  or  selected  for 
their  energy,  capacity,  and  brilliancy  in  actual  service, 
they  are  by  common  consent  equal  to  the  officers  of  the 
best  of  European  armies.  In  the  war  with  Mexico  and 
in  that  of  the  rebellion  it  required  at  least  one  year  to 
make  the  army  fit  for  the  field.  At  the  end  of  that  time 
these  armies,  as  well  as  that  disbanded  in  1783,  were  soul 
and  body  like  the  army  maintained  in  times  of  peace,  and 
then  called  the  regular  army. 

The  genius  of  the  Government  contemplates  that  all 
able  males  of  proper  age  in  the  country  should  constitute 


THE   ARMY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

'  the  army  of  the  United  States.  The  officers  and  soldiers 
are  at  all  times  citizens  of  the  country,  with  all  the  rights 
and  privileges  of  the  most  favored  civilian.  The  army 
is  the  body  in  which  the  militarj^  spirit  of  the  people  is 
fostered.  The  relation  of  the  jiarts  could  be  improved, 
and  some  ways  in  which  this  improvement  might  be  ef- 
fected will  be  incidentally  suggested  in  the  course  of  this 
paper. 

It  is  an  anomaly  in  history  that  the  people  of  the  col- 
onies immediatel}^  after  the  war  of  the  Ee volution  neg- 
lected to  recognize  the  services  of  the  army,  and  treated 
it  with  great  injustice.  Men  and  officers  who  had  given 
their  time  and  property  for  the  welfare  of  the  nation  were 
turned  out  of  the  service  without  pay  or  recognition  of 
any  kind.  Representing  their  grievances  for  themselves 
and  for  the  men  of  their  commands,  a  committee  of  offi- 
cers in  an  address  to  Congress  said :  "  Our  embarrass- 
ments thicken  so  fast  that  many  of  us  are  unable  to  go 
farther.  Shadows  have  been  offered  to  us,  while  the  sub- 
stance has  been  gleaned  by  others.  The  citizens  murmur 
at  the  greatness  of  the  taxes,  and  no  part  reaches  the 
army.  We  have  borne  all  that  men  can  bear ;  our  jDrop- 
erty  is  expended,  our  private  resources  are  at  an  end." 
Taking  advantage  of  this  discontent  and  unjust  treat- 
ment, there  was  no  lack  of  evil-disposed  persons  who  for 
sinister  purposes  sought  to  foment  an  insurrection,  but 
these  were  foiled,  and  the  army  remained  true  patriots 
to  the  end.  "It  was,"  says  Bancroft,  "a  source  of  irin- 
tation  that  the  members  of  the  Legislatures  never  ad- 
journed till  they  had  paid  themselves  fully,  that  all  on 
the  civil  lists  of  the  United  States  regularly  received  their 
salaries,  and  that  all  on  the  military  lists  were  as  regularly 
left  unpaid." 

This  history  is  in  marked  contrast  to  that  which  char- 


THE  ARMY   OF   THE   UNITED    STATES  5 

acterized  the  disbandment  of  the  army  of  the  country 
three-quarters  of  a  century  later.  This  army  numbered 
thousands  where  the  army  of  the  Eevolution  counted  tens, 
but  it  disappeared  noiselessly  and  quietly,  well  paid  and 
full  of  honors,  and  continues  without  dissent  to  receive 
the  care  and  blessings  of  the  nation  it  saved. 

Following-  the  war  of  the  Revolution  there  was  on  all 
sides  a  fictitious  fear  of  a  '^  standing  army."  Whether 
this  arose  from  the  events  which  we  have  hastily  sur- 
veyed, or  whether  it  was  an  inheritance  born  of  the  hatred 
of  monarchical  institutions,  it  is  not  the  purpose  of  this  pa- 
per to  inquire.  In  the  sequel  it  proved  worse  than  disas- 
trous to  the  honor  of  the  country.  Less  than  thirty  years 
after  the  close  of  the  war  of  the  Revolution  the  American 
people  were  again  called  upon  to  take  up  arms  to  perfect 
their  independence  of  Great  Britain.  The  records  of  the 
events  of  the  War  of  1812,  so  far  as  the  army  was  con- 
cerned, contain  a  history  which  is  calculated  to  bring  the 
blush  of  shame  to  the  cheek  of  every  American.  Blun- 
ders of  otScers,  misbehavior  on  the  part  of  men,  mixed 
with  failures  in  every  direction,  were  the  governing  inci- 
dents of  a  campaign  which  ended  in  the  rout  of  the  army 
and  the  destruction  of  the  Capitol  and  public  buildings  of 
the  infant  republic.  Almost  the  only  gleam  of  the  mili- 
tary spirit  which  had  achieved  the  independence  of  the 
country  came  from  the  South,  at  New  Orleans,  where 
•  Jackson  with  a  command  of  volunteers  defeated  a  force 
of  the  veterans  of  Europe. 

After  the  conclusion  of  the  war  with  Great  Britain, 
Congress  reorganized  the  army  on  a  peace  footing,  with 
proper  proportions  of  Infantry,  Cavalry,  and  Artillery, 
Its  strength  was  10,000,  exclusive  of  the  Engineer  estab- 
lishment.    This  force  was  reduced  in  1821. 

The  war  with  Mexico,  whatever  its  political  aspects,  re- 


6        THE  ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

suited  with  great  honor  to  the  army.  The  known  weak- 
ness of  the  miUtia  system,  still  fresh  in  the  memory  of 
those  responsible  for  the  transaction  of  affairs,  was  avoid- 
ed. The  President  called  for  volunteers,  not  to  exceed 
50,000,  and  these  with  the  regular  army  fought  a  series  of 
successful  battles,  which  ended  in  the  capitulation  of  the 
capita]  of  Mexico. 

At  the  inception  of  the  War  of  the  Rebellion  the  army 
of  the  United  States  was  by  law  about  12,000  strong. 
The  system  initiated  and  tried  in  the  war  with  Mexico 
was  again  adopted.  Volunteers  were  called  for,  and  in- 
corporated as  far  as  was  possible  with  the  regular  army, 
so  that  the  army  was  increased  to  186,000  in  1861,  to 
637,000  in  1862,  to  918,000  in  1863,  and  finally  to  the 
enormous  strength  of  more  than  1,000,000  in  1865. 

ORGANIZATION 

At  the  present  time  the  army  consists  of  twenty  -  five 
regiments  of  Infantry,  ten  of  Cavalry,  and  five  of  Artil- 
lery, constituting  a  force  of — not  to  exceed  25,000  men. 
The  organization  of  each  infantry  regiment  is  familiar  to 
the  reader,  consisting,  as  in  the  State  volunteer  organiza- 
tions, of  ten  companies  each,  officered  by  a  captain,  one 
first  and  one  second  lieutenant,  and  of  two  extra  lieuten- 
ants, who  are  the  adjutant  and  quartermaster  of  the  regi- 
ment. This,  with  the  colonel,  lieutenant-colonel,  and  ma- 
jor, completes  the  officers  of  the  infantry  regiment.  The 
cavalry  regiment  consists  of  twelve  troops,  or  mounted 
companies,  with  three  officers  to  the  troop,  one  captain 
and  one  first  and  one  second  lieutenant,  and  has  three 
majors  instead  of  one  as  in  the  infantry.  In  the  artillery 
the  regiment  contains  twelve  companies,  or  batteries,  each 
being  officered  by  one  captain,  two  first  lieutenants,  and 


INFANTRY    ADVANCE-GUARD 


one  second  lieutenant.  Consequently,  in  the  artillery  reg- 
iment there  are  twentv-six  first  lieutenants,  allowing'  two 
for  each  company,  and  one  each  as  adjutant  and  quarter- 
master. The  field  officers  consist  of  a  colonel,  lieutenant- 
colonel,  and  three  majors. 

In  each  regiment  of  artillery  there  are  two  horse  bat- 
teries, the  officers  of  which  are  changed  from  time  to  time 
with  the  officers  of  foot  batteries,  so  that  all  may  be  in 


8  THE   ARMY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

structed  in  this  important  part  of  the  artillery  oflBcer's  du- 
ties. The  other  batteries,  or  companies,  are  foot  troops, 
instructed  both  as  infantry  soldiers  and  in  the  handling 
of  heavy  guns  in  the  permanent  forts  on  the  sea-coast  and 
elsewhere.* 

The  Genera]  officers  of  the  line  of  the  army  are  three 
Major-generals  and  six  Brigadier- generals.  The  senior 
Major-general  now  commands  the  army.  The  other 
Major-generals  command  departments,  as  do  also  the 
Brigadier-generals. 

The  administration  of  the  army  is  conducted  by  bureaus 
or  staff  departments,  whose  chiefs  or  heads  have  the  rank 
of  Brigadier  -  generals.  These  are  the  Adjutant -gener- 
al's Department,  the  Inspector-general's  Department,  the 
Judge  -  advocate  -  general's  Department,  the  Quartermas- 
ter-general's Department,  the  Subsistence  Department, 
the  Medical  Department,  the  Pay  Department,  the  En- 
gineer Bureau,  the  Ordnance  Department,  and  the  Signal 
Corps.  Each  of  these  departments  has  a  history  of  which 
its  members  are  proud.  It  is  not  the  intention  to  enter 
into  these  histories.  It  is  enough  to  say  that  each  depart- 
ment is  the  growth  of  necessity,  and  each  has  been  re- 
modelled, changed,  and  improved  as  experience  has  indi- 
cated. Nor  is  it  too  much  to  say  that  each  of  these 
departments  is  as  near  perfection  in  the  accomplishment 
of  its  duties  as  the  creations  of  man  for  such  pur2:)oses  usu- 
ally become,  made  so  by  trials  in  war  which  tested  them 
in  a  manner  not  possible  in  generations  of  service  in  peace 
times. 

The  Adjutant- general's  Department  is  charged  with 
the  correspondence  of  the  army,  the  issuance  of  orders, 
the  keeping  of  the  records,  and  the  general  management 
of  recruiting  the  army.  Here  are  kept  the  monthly  and 
other  reports  of  the  army,  so  filed  and  tabulated  that  on 


THE  ARMY    OF  THE   UNITED   STATES  9 

any  day  in  any  year  of  liis  service  the  exact  status  and 
occupation  of  any  enlisted  man  or  officer  can  be  deter- 
mined. Tlie  records  are  as  comjDlete  for  tlie  millions  of 
men  in  the  army  during  the  Civil  War  as  for  the  thou- 
sands who  now  constitute  the  regular  establishment. 
Does  X  claim  to  have  been  injured  in  the  line  of  duty  at 
any  time  in  the  past,  even  beyond  the  memory  of  man, 
the  proper  machinery  set  in  motion  in  the  Adjutant-gen- 
eral's office  will  soon  determine  whether  the  claim  is  well 
founded.  In  short,  without  entering  into  particulars,  ev- 
ery matter  that  is  of  interest  to  soldier  or  civilian,  cover- 
ing the  service  of  a  soldier  duly  enlisted,  can  be  investi- 
gated in  the  smallest  details,  and  most  positive  conclusions 
arrived  at  through  this  well-conducted  department.  With 
its  rests  the  supply  of  recruits  for  the  different  organiza- 
tions of  the  army,  the  assignment  of  officers  to  arms  of 
the  service,  the  discharge  of  officers  or  men  by  sentence 
of  courts-martial  or  otherwise,  and  generally  all  the  de- 
tails resulting  from  the  orders  of  the  President  of  the 
United  States,  the  Secretary  of  War,  and  the  General-in- 
chief.  If  an  officer  desires  a  leave  of  absence  or  a  soldier 
a  furlough,  he  applies  through  this  department,  and  the 
result  of  an  application  on  this  or  any  other  subject  is  re- 
turned through  the  "  channels."  It  has  been  the  fashion 
to  decry  the  "red  tape"  connected  with  the  administra- 
tion of  the  army  through  the  Adjutant-general's  Depart- 
ment, but  the  charge  is  not  well  founded.  For  work  that 
demands  celerity  the  telegraph  is  brought  into  requisition, 
and  through  this  medium  the  entire  army  of  the  United 
States  could  be  put  in  motion,  equipped  for  Avar  service, 
in  six  hours  or  less  time. 

The  Inspector-general's  Department,  as  the  name  indi- 
cates, is  charged  with  the  inspection  of  the  army  through 
every  department  and  branch  of  service,  and  of  all  mat- 


10  THE   ARMY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

ters  relating  to  its  operations  and  involving  its  eiRciency. 
This  department  is  responsible  that  no  order  goes  long 
neglected,  no  continued  fraud  or  niismanagenient  of  fiscal 
concerns  exists,  that  want  of  discipline  is  discovered,  and, 
generally,  that  the  state  of  efficiency  of  the  army  in  all  its 
parts  is  known  to  the  authorities  in  command.  It  is  the 
great  safeguard  of  the  military  establishment,  for  when  it 
is  properly  conducted  no  neglect,  incompetency,  or  mis- 
management, anywhere  throughout  the  system,  can  long 
go  undiscovered,  and  as  a  matter  of  course  uncorrected. 
The  office  has  from  time  to  time  been  combined  with 
that  of  the  Adjutant-general,  but  experience  has  taught, 
as  reason  indicated,  that  by  the  present  management, 
when  each  department  is  separate,  and  responsible  in  its 
own  sphere  of  action,  the  best  results  are  accomplished  for 
the  good  of  the  army. 

The  duties  of  the  Judge  -  advocate  -  general's  Depart- 
ment are,  as  indicated  by  the  name,  those  that  are  de- 
manded by  the  jurisprudence  of  the  army. 

Of  the  supply  departments  of  the  army  that  of  the 
Quartermaster  -  general  is  second  to  none  in  importance. 
On  it  depends  the  supply  of  the  army  of  clothing,  forage, 
transportation,  and  everything  that  is  required  by  the 
soldier  in  barracks  or  in  the  field  connected  with  these. 
The  quarters  of  the  soldier,  wdiether  houses  or  tents,  the 
storehouses,  the  stables  for  animals,  the  wagons,  or  cars, 
or  steamboats,  or  other  means  of  transporting  the  army 
or  the  supplies  of  the  army,  all  depend  on  this  depart- 
ment. Beds  and  blankets  for  the  men,  forage,  straw,  and 
shelter  for  the  animals,  must  be  looked  for  from  the  quar- 
termaster of  a  command.  In  fact  everything,  save  what  is 
eaten  by  the  men  or  used  in  the  case  of  the  sick  or  wound- 
ed, or  especially  intended  for  armies  in  their  special  work 
of  giving  battle,  must  be  furnished  by  this  deiDartment. 


i|ii||||i[miNii:iii[iiii['i:ii:]iNi<'iiii^ 


'^^    OF 


THl' 


-^~ 


;UBri7EE3IT71 


THE   ARMY   OF   THE  UNITED   STATES  13 

It  is  not  difficult,  tlien,  to  conclude  how  easily  a  poorly- 
conducted   Quartermaster -general's   Department  embar- 
rasses and  paralyzes  an  army.     It  was  this  that  AVashing- 
ton  had  to  contend  with  in  the  dark  days  at  Yalley  Forge. 
It  was  this,  in  part,  that  stultified  the  preparations  of  the 
armv  in  1812.     It  was  from  such  cause  that  resulted  the 
suffering  of  the  British  army  in  the  Crimea  in  the  war 
with  Russia.     And  to  a  well  -  conducted  Quartermaster- 
general's  Department  may  be  attributed,  in  so  far  as  these 
things  g-o,  our  successes  in  the  great  War  of  the  Eebellion. 
Equal  in  importance  with  any  other  for  the  army  in  the 
field  is  the  Subsistence  Department.      In  fact,  while  its 
duties  are  not  so  complicated  as  are  those  of  the  Quarter- 
master-generars  Department,  the  adequate  supply  of  food 
to  the  men  is  of  more  importance  than  is  the  supply  of 
forage  to  the  animals  of  an  array,  or  of  clothing.    Any  neg- 
lect in  the  Subsistence  Department  is  quick  to  be  felt  and 
resented,  and  soon  ends  in  demoralization.      "An  army 
moves  on  its  belly ''  is  an  aphorism  which  officers  of  the 
army  have  had  impressed  on  them  by  every  experience, 
commencing  with  the  first  day  in  campaign.     When  it  is 
considered  that  each  man's  ration,  of  an  army  consisting 
of  100,000  men,  is  made  up  of  some  dozen  or  more  articles 
of  food,  and  several  of  the  parts  of  the  ration  are  inter- 
changeable with  three  or  four  others,  the  exactions  of  the 
duties  of  the  Subsistence  Department  may  be  understood. 
The  magnitude  of  tlie  operations  of  the  Subsistence  De- 
partment is  indicated  by  the  fact  that  during  the  four 
years'  war  of  the  Eebellion  this  department  disbursed  for 
supplies  nearly  8362,000,000.      Secretary  Stanton,  in  his 
annual  report  after  the  close  of  the  war,  said :  ''  During 
the  war  this  branch  of  the  service  never  failed.     It  an- 
swers to  the  demand,  and  is  ever  ready  to  meet  the  na- 
tional call." 


14  THE  ARMY   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

To  the  Medical  Department  belong  the  duties  of  taking 
care  of  the  sick  and  wounded  of  the  army,  and  the  preven- 
tion, as  far  as  human  science  can  go,  of  the  first  and  great- 
est source  of  an  army's  depletion  in  the  field — sickness  in 
camp.  These  duties  involve  part  of  those  of  the  Quarter- 
master-general's Department,  and  part  of  those  of  the 
Subsistence  Department,  while  they  have  much  that  is 
common  to  neither  to  attend  to.  In  other  words,  an  effi- 
cient medical  officer  must  be  a  good  quartermaster  and  a 
good  commissary,  and,  above  all,  a  sl^illed  surgeon  and 
physician. 

THE   HOSPITAL  CORPS 

The  Hospital  Corps  is  a  body  of  soldiers  permanently 
attached  to  the  Medical  Department,  and  all  the  duties 
devolving  upon  the  Medical  Department  must  be  dis- 
charged by  it.  It  consists  of  non-commissioned  officers 
(hospital  stewards)  and  privates,  a  small  proportion  of  the 
latter  being  graded  as  acting  hospital  stewards. 

This  corps  is  recruited  by  the  voluntary  transfer  from 
other  branches  of  the  service  of  men  who  have  served  at 
least  one  year,  and  have  thus  become  trained  to  military 
discipline,  or  by  direct  enlistment  of  soldiers  whose  terms 
of  service  in  other  organizations  have  expired.  In  time 
of  peace  not  more  than  ten  civilians  may  be  enlisted  in 
the  Hospital  Corps,  but  each  of  these  must  be  attached  to 
a  company  of  the  line  for  at  least  one  year,  to  become 
thoroughly  instructed  in  a  soldier's  duty. 

The  qualifications  of  a  private  of  the  Hospital  Corps, 
in  addition  to  the  physical  soundness  required  of  all  sol- 
diers, are  ability  to  read  and  write,  natural  intelligence, 
temperate  habits,  and  good  general  character.  No  mar- 
ried men  are  accepted,  and  if  a  private  marries  he  cannot 
be  re-enlisted. 


THE  ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED    STATES  15 

The  acting  hospital  stewards  are  detailed  by  the  Secre- 
tary of  War  from  the  privates,  after  at  least  one  year's 
service  in  the  corps,  and  passing  an  examination  in  phar- 
macy, arithmetic,  dictation,  the  regulations  of  the  Medical 
Department  of  the  army,  the  principle  of  cooking,  minor 
surgery,  and  nursing.  Their  pay  is  $25  a  month  and  the 
other  allowances  of  a  private.  They  may  lose  their  posi- 
tion for  misconduct,  on  the  recommendation  of  a  medical 
officer,  or  by  sentence  of  a  court-martial. 

Hospital  stewards  are  non-commissioned  officers  of  the 
highest  grade,  ranking  as  sergeants  of  the  non-commis- 
sioned staff.  They  are  appointed  by  examination  from 
among  the  acting  hospital  stewards  after  at  least  one 
year's  service  in  that  grade.  They  are  examined  in  the 
same  subjects  as  tlie  acting  stewards,  but  more  thorough- 
ly, and  their  capacity  to  control  men  is  taken  into  account. 
They  must  be  men  of  good  habits  and  of  unimpeachable 
integrity.  They  cannot  be  reduced  to  the  ranks.  Their 
pay  is  $J:5  a  month. 

At  every  post  in  the  army  there  are  at  least  one  stew- 
ard and  three  privates,  and  at  the  very  large  posts  there 
may  be  as  many  as  three  or  four  stewards  or  acting  stew- 
ards, and  twelve  or  fifteen  privates.  They  are  subject  to 
the  same  conditions  of  subordination  and  discipline,  and 
differ  from  other  enlisted  men  only  in  the  nature  of  their 
duties.  They  are  equipped  as  infantry,  excepting  when 
serving  in  the  field  with  cavalry  or  light  artillery,  when 
they  are  mounted,  but  they  carry  no  offensive  weapons. 
They  are  armed  with  a  large  knife,  and  one -fourth  of 
them  carry  a  medicine  case — a  box  supplied  with  certain 
appliances. 

They  are  instructed  in  their  special  duties  both  theoret- 
ically and  practically,  every  man  being  required  to  learn 
all  forms  of  work  necessary  in  a  hospital.     This  instruc- 


16  THE  ARMY   OF   THE   UNITED  STATES 

tion  is  given  by  the  medical  officers,  by  the  stewards,  and 
by  the  privates  longest  on  thity.  When  well  instructed 
they  are  assigned  to  such  duties  as  they  are  best  suited 
for. 

Besides  their  duties  in-doors  they  are  drilled  in  the  use 
of  litters  and  ambulances,  which  involves  the  careful  and 
expeditious  transportation  of  a  wounded  man  from  the 
place  of  casualty  to  the  bed  of  the  hospital.  These  drills 
in  and  out  of  doors  are  carried  out  with  the  precision  and 
attention  to  detail  that  mark  other  military  exercises. 

A  day  in  a  military  hospital  for  the  enlisted  men  of  the 
Hospital  Corps  is  much  as  follows :  All  the  men  rise  at 
reveille;  the  cook,  his  assistant,  and  the  mess-room  at- 
tendant earlier.  In  the  wards  the  nurses  see  that  those 
patients  allowed  to  do  so  wash  and  dress  themselves  prop- 
erly, open  their  bedding  for  proper  airing,  and  later  make 
their  own  beds  if  strong  enough.  They  wash  and  make 
more  comfortable  those  patients  unable  to  get  up.  They 
carefully  sweep  the  floors,  opening  such  windows  and  ven- 
tilators as  the  weather  may  allow  ;  dust  all  chairs,  tables, 
windows,  and  other  objects;  cleanse  the  spittoons  and  any 
vessels  belonging  to  the  bedridden,  and  prepare  the  ward 
for  the  morning  visit  of  the  medical  officer.  In  the  mean 
time  breakfast  has  been  prepared,  and  the  nurse  sees  that 
the  patients  who  go  to  the  table  are  neatly  dressed.  He 
brings  in  the  breakfasts  of  those  who  cannot  go  to  the 
table,  and  gives  them  such  assistance  as  is  necessary.  All 
day  he  is  employed  in  keeping  the  ward  tidy,  in  adminis- 
tering the  medicines  or  arranging  the  dressings  that  may 
be  ordered,  and  in  keeping  the  apparatus  in  the  ward,  and 
the  wash-room  and  water  -  closet  that  usually  adjoin  it, 
scrupulously  clean.  In  the  rougher  and  more  ordinary 
part  of  this  work  he  is  assisted  by  such  patients  as  are 
convalescent.      The  nurse  is   in  military  charge   of  the 


THE   ARMY  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES  17 

ward,  and  is  responsible  for  tlie  good  conduct  of  the  pa- 
tients, who  are  bound  to  obey  him.  In  case  of  disobedi- 
ence he  at  once  reports  to  the  steward,  who  exercises  his 
authority,  or,  if  that  is  unavailing,  reports  the  case  with- 
out delay  to  the  medical  officer. 

The  right  of  appeal  to  the  medical  officer  always  exists. 
The  nurse  sees  that  there  is  no  disorder  at  any  time  dur- 
ing the  day  and  no  noise  at  night,  the  lights  being  extin- 
guished at  a  fixed  hour,  except  such  as  are  necessary  for 
the  care  of  the  sick.  The  nurse  carefully  observes  the 
sick,  and  at  any  sudden  change  for  the  worse  he  prompt- 
ly notifies  the  steward.  When  patients  require  special 
watching  or  care,  drafts  are  made  from  the  other  patients 
for  temporary  duty. 

The  privates  not  directly  employed  as  cooks  and  nurses 
begin  their  duties  at  reveille,  and  keep  the  administrative 
parts  of  the  hospital  and  the  grounds  and  out-buildings  in 
order,  take  care  of  the  cows  and  the  garden,  and  generally 
discharge  the  several  duties  to  which  they  are  assigned. 
As  they  usually  are  intelligent  men  of  good  habits,  all  this 
work  is  done  regularly  and  uniformly  with  little  urging. 
Nevertheless,  the  stewards  exercise  a  general  supervision, 
and  are  held  responsible  for  any  lapses  in  neatness  or  dis- 
cipline. About  nine  o'clock  every  morning  the  sleeping- 
rooms  of  the  hospital  corps  are  inspected  by  a  medical  of- 
ficer, as  the  company  barracks  are  by  a  company  officer ; 
the  wards  are  visited  and  the  patients  examined  at  least 
twice  daily ;  and  the  whole  hospital  and  every  man  in  it 
is  carefully  inspected  once  every  week.  To  be  ready  for 
these  inspections  requires  constant  and  intelligent  Avork 
by  the  men  of  the  corps. 

The  stewards  are  directly  occupied  with  dispensing; 
with  acting  as  dressers  for  the  graver  cases ;  with  draw- 
ing and  distributing  the  rations  and  supervising  the  cook- 


18  THE   AKMY   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

ing ;  with  attending  to  the  clerical  work,  which  is  always 
large  and  requires  exactness  and  skill;  and  with  a  con- 
stant oversight  of  the  more  seriously  sick  or  injured,  un- 
der the  medical  officer's  instructions. 

The  duties  of  the  Pay  Department  are  sufficiently  in- 
dicated by  its  name. 

THE   ENGINEER  CORPS 

The  Corps  of  Engineers  w^as  called  into  existence  by 
the  necessities  of  the  war  of  the  colonies  for  indepen- 
dence. Its  origin  was  in  the  appointment  by  Washing- 
ton, under  resolution  of  Congress,  of  four  officers  of  en- 
gineers from  the  arni}^  of  France,  who  came  to  this  country 
seeking  service  immediately  on  the  outbreak  of  hostilities 
w4th  the  mother  -  country.  At  that  period  France  had 
produced  the  best  military  engineers  in  the  world.  The 
list  of  eminent  men  in  this  branch  of  science  included  dur- 
ing the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centuries  the  names 
of  Pagan,  Cormontaigne,  Vauban,  Carnot,  and  Montalem- 
bert,  and  their  pupils  were  the  founders  of  the  Engineer 
Corps  in  this  country.  As  early  as  1778  Congress  estab- 
lished an  organization  of  three  companies  of  engineer 
troops  w^ith  proper  officers,  which  companies  served  through 
the  war  of  the  Revolution  with  distinction,  but  were  mus- 
tered out  of  the  service,  together  with  the  Corps  of  Engi- 
neers of  the  army,  in  1783. 

In  1704  Congress  provided  for  a  permanent  establish- 
ment of  a  Corps  of  Artillerists  and  Engineers,  and  the  es- 
tablishment of  a  school  of  instruction  at  West  Point, 
New  York.  From  this  originated  the  Military  Academy, 
thougli  it  w\as  not  fairly  established,  owing  to  accidents 
from  fire  and  a  want  of  funds,  until  some  six  or  seven 
years  afterwards.     From  the  date  of  its  establishment  up 


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THE  ARMY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES  21 

to  a  period  after  the  Civil  War  the  Military  Academy  at 
West  Point  continued  by  law  a  part  of  the  Engineer  Corps 
of  the  army,  and  it  was  controlled  and  managed  by  officers 
of  that  corps.  By  act  of  Congress  of  18(36  this  control 
and  management  passed  to  the  army  at  large,  or  rather  to 
the  War  Department,  the  superintendent  being  selected, 
and  tlie  officers  and  instructors  being  detailed,  from  any 
arm  of  the  service.  This  step  was  taken  by  Congress  af- 
ter discussion  based  on  the  experience  of  the  Civil  War, 
with  a  view  to  liberalizing  and  broadening  the  instruction 
of  the  students  who  were  to  become  officers.  The  Acad- 
emy, whether  considered  before  or  since  the  change,  has 
produced  results  of  which  its  friends  are  justly  proud,  and 
which  must  for  all  time  be  a  credit  to  the  country  and  a 
monument  to  the  corps  of  officers  who  nursed  it  into  life 
in  the  early  history  of  the  country,  and  have  since  given 
it  vigor  and  vitality  in  the  performance  of  its  important 
work. 

Up  to  1863,  when  it  was  merged  b}^  law  with  the  En- 
gineer Corps,  there  existed  with  variable  importance  a 
Corps  of  Topographical  Engineers.  The  duty  of  this 
corps  in  time  of  war  was  such  as  is  intrusted  to  officers 
charged  with  the  details  of  preliminary  reconnoissance  of 
a  theatre  of  war.  In  peace  times  this  corps  was  occu- 
pied in  the  then  western  country  making  explorations — 
geographical  and  geological.  The  result  of  their  labors  in 
tliis  direction  and  those  of  the  Engineer  Corps  proper  for 
more  than  three-quarters  of  a  century  has  been  the  loca- 
tion and  construction  of  the  roads,  canals,  important  pub- 
lic works  and  improvements  of  the  country,  including  the 
accurate  methods  of  surveying — geodetic,  topographic, 
and  hydrographic — that  are  now  in  use. 

In  the  time  of  war  the  duties  required  of  the  Corps  of 
Engineers  are  mainly  the  work  of  planning  and  superin- 


22       THE  ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

tending  the  construction  of  all  fortifications  required  in 
military  operations,  including  the  auxiliary  works  involved 
in  the  attack  or  defence  of  fortifications.  The  corps  is 
also  charged  with  procuring  and  embodying  in  maps  all 
information  involving  the  topographical  features  of  the 
country  comprising  the  theatre  of  war  or  a  field  of  bat- 
tle. They  may  be  charged,  as  stafi'-olficers,  with  the  se- 
lection of  camps,  and  should  be  consulted  in  the  choice 
of  all  places  to  be  fortified  and  held,  as  also  to  obtain 
information  of  the  enemy's  strongholds,  works,  and  re- 
sources. Tliey  are  charged  with  the  care  and  management 
of  the  bridge  equipage  of  the  army,  with  the  construction 
of  bridges  in  an  advance,  and  the  destruction  of  those 
which,  being  of  value  to  the  enemy,  are  ordered  to  be 
demolished. 

The  only  troops  authorized  by  law  as  a  part  of  the  En- 
gineer Corps  are  four  companies,  ofiicered  by  captains  and 
lieutenants  of  engineers.  These  companies,  three  of  which 
are  stationed  at  Willets  Point,  and  one  at  "West  Point, 
JSTew  York,  constitute  the  basis  for  an  increase  to  meet 
the  exigencies  of  war.  They  are  constantly  instructed, 
theoretically  and  practically,  in  sapping,  mining,  and  pon- 
toniering,  and  comprise  a  force  of  material  for  non-com- 
missioned officers  in  the  event  of  a  large  increase  of  the 
enlisted  force  of  engineers. 

In  time  of  peace  the  Engineer  Corps  must  attend  to  all 
usual  duties  expected  of  such  corps  in  an  army  always 
ready  for  war,  besides  being  charged  by  legislative  enact- 
ments or  by  executive  orders  with  a  multitude  of  respon- 
sibilities which  it  is  difficult  to  enumerate  in  detail.  These 
include  surveys  for  planning  and  construction  of  perma- 
nent fortifications  on  the  sea -coast ;  the  surveys  for  the 
planning  and  construction  of  Avorks  for  the  improvement 
of  rivers  and  harbors  ;  the  construction  of  beacons,  light 


THE  AUMV  OF   THE  UNITED  STATES       23 

houses,  and  all  fixed  aids  to  navigation ;  the  construction 
of  public  buildings  and  works  in  charge  of  the  War  De- 
partment ;  the  surveys  of  the  great  lakes  of  the  country ; 
the  astronomical  determination  of  boundaries  and  initial 
points ;  the  surveys  of  the  Territories ;  the  supervision  of 
the  construction  of  bridges  over  navigable  waters ;  and 
the  study  and  perfecting  of  the  system  of  defence  depend- 
ing on  the  use  of  torpedoes,  and  the  necessary  suljniarine 
mines  connected  with  the  defence  of  our  large  commercial 
cities. 

With  all  these  diversified  duties,  which  require  at  times 
the  application  of  the  highest  attainments  in  science  and 
the  arts,  it  is  the  pride  of  the  Corps  of  Engineers  that  with 
an  expenditure  of  millions  of  money  yearly  for  the  last 
half-century  no  defalcation  or  misappropriation  of  govern- 
ment funds  has  ever  occurred;  but,  on  the  other  hand, 
through  care,  industry,  and  intelligent  supervision  of  the 
officers  of  the  corps  in  charge  of  public  works,  the  Govern- 
ment has  habitually  received  full  value  in  work  for  the 
money  expended.  If  there  is  a  single  exception  to  this,  it 
in  no  way  involves  the  reputation  of  the  corps,  and  stands 
chargeable  to  the  individual,  who,  as  an  exception,  is  the 
more  prominent. 

In  the  discussions  already  referred  to  in  Congress  grow- 
ing out  of  the  experience  of  the  war,  it  was  urged  that  the 
education  and  daily  duties  in  his  profession  unfitted  an 
engineer  officer  for  brilliant,  independent,  and  responsible 
command  of  an  army  engaged  in  a  hazardous  campaign. 
It  was  urged  that  his  habits  of  thought  in  the  prosecution 
of  the  labors  of  an  exact  science,  in  the  work  of  which  a 
large  factor  for  safety  is  always  allowed,  unfit  the  engineer 
officer  for  the  risks  of  independent  command.  There  is 
no  need  to  discuss  this  question  at  this  time.  It  is  enough 
to  say  that  officers  of  engineers  combat  the  proposition 


24  THE   ARMY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

with  fervor,  and  insist  that  they  should  be  considered  as 
officers  for  command  of  troops  rather  than  as  staff-officers. 
Whatever  may  be  the  conclusion  in  regard  to  this,  the 
army  at  large  will  always  share  in  the  pride  of  the  En- 
gineer Corps,  which  arises  from  the  fact  that  if  the  educa- 
tion they  receive  unfits  the  officers  for  command  when 
large  risks  are  involved  in  contending  with  an  active  en- 
emy, it  peculiarly  fits  them  for  control  in  public  works 
and  scientific  pursuits  where  constant  watchfulness,  ex- 
treme caution,  and  a  large  element  on  the  side  of  safety 
are  inseparable  from  satisfactory  service.  And  thus  the 
loss  of  the  corps  in  one  direction  is  its  gain  in  another. 

THE  ORDNANCE  DEPARTMENT 

As  early  in  the  history  of  the  country  as  1794  three  or 
four  arsenals  were  provided  for,  and  between  1791  and 
1812  more  than  eight  millions  of  money  had  been  appro- 
priated for  ordnance  purposes. 

The  Ordnance  Department  was  formally  established  by 
act  of  Congress  in  1812.  It  consisted  of  a  Commissary- 
general  of  Ordnance,  having  the  rank,  pay,  and  emolu- 
ments of  a  colonel  of  infantry,  and  thirteen  other  officers, 
eight  of  whom  had  the  rank  of  second  lieutenants  of  in- 
fantry. The  duties  of  the  department  as  prescribed  by 
this  act  are  almost  identical  with  those  now  performed, 
which,  in  general  terms,  are  to  procure  by  purchase  or 
manufacture  the  armament  for  sea-coast  defences,  and  the 
arms  and  equipments  and  all  other  ordnance  stores  for  the 
army,  the  militia,  the  Marine  Corps,  and  for  all  the  execu- 
tive departments,  to  protect  public  money  and  property. 
The  colleges  authorized  by  law  to  receive  arms  for  in- 
struction are  supplied  by  the  Ordnance  Department. 

In  1813  the  number  of  assistants  of  ordnance  was  in- 


THE  ARMY   OF    THE   UNITED   STATES  25 

creased  to  sixteen,  and  their  pay  raised  to  that  of  a  first 
heutenant  of  infantry.  By  act  of  1815  the  duties  of  the 
department  were  reiterated,  and  the  senior  othcer  of  ord- 
nance— no  longer  called  the  Commissary-general  of  Ord- 
nance— was  given  general  control  of  the  public  armories. 
Six  years  later  the  Ordnance  Department  was  merged  in 
the  artillery,  and  ordnance  duties  were  performed  by  artil- 
lery officers  selected  by  the  President. 

In  1S32  the  Ordnance  Department  was  re-established, 
and  in  1838  the  number  of  officers  increased. 

The  present  organization  of  the  Ordnance  Department 
is  as  follows  :  A  Chief  of  Ordnance,  with  the  rank  of  brig- 
adier-general;  three  colonels;  four  lieutenant- colonels ; 
ten  majors  ;  twenty  captains,  and  sixteen  first  lieutenants. 

All  vacancies  in  the  grade  of  first  lieutenant  are  filled 
by  transfers  from  the  line  of  the  army,  and  promotions  to 
the  other  grades  are  regular,  except  that  the  Chief  is  ap- 
pointed by  selection. 

The  Ordnance  Ofiice  is  at  the  War  Department  in 
"Washington,  where  the  Chief  of  Ordnance,  with  several 
assistants,  supervises  and  controls  all  matters  pertaining 
to  the  department.  The  arsenals  of  construction  are  :  the 
Xational  Armory,  and  the  Frankford,  Watervliet,  Eock 
Island,  Watertown,  and  Benicia  arsenals.  The  arsenals  of 
storage  are :  the  Allegheny,  Augusta,  Fort  Monroe,  In- 
dianapolis, Kennebec,  Xew  York,  and  San  Antonio.  Be- 
sides these  there  are  a  number  of  powder  and  ordnance 
depots  located  at  points  in  the  country  most  convenient 
for  the  purposes  of  supply. 

From  1875  to  1882  an  officer  was  designated  as  Con- 
structor of  Ordnance,  and  to  him  was  intrusted,  under  di- 
rection of  the  Chief  of  Ordnance,  the  designing  and  con- 
struction of  all  guns  and  carriao-es.  In  1882  this  office 
was  abolished,  and  its  duties  were  assumed  by  the  Chief 


26  THE  ARiMY   OF   THE  UNITED   STATES 

of  Ordnance.  "VYliile  utilizing  the  services  of  officers  sta- 
tioned elsewhere,  he  has  a  staff  of  officers  in  Washington 
mainly  employed  on  construction  work,  and  officers  em- 
ployed as  resident  inspectors  at  private  foundries  and  es- 
tablishments engaged  in  work  for  the  Government — such 
as  the  West  Point  and  South  Boston  foundries,  and  the 
Midvale  and  Cambria  steel-works.  These  inspectors  are 
the  medium  of  communication  between  the  Chief  of  Ord- 
nance and  the  establishment  to  which  they  are  attached, 
and  it  is  their  duty  to  supervise  every  detail  of  the  work, 
and  make  the  various  inspections  provided  for  in  the  con- 
tract and  in  the  ordnance  instructions. 

Intimately  associated  with  the  Ordnance  Office  has 
been,  since  18Y5,  the  Ordnance  Board,  which  to-day  con- 
sists of  three  members,  with  stations  at  the  New  York 
Arsenal,  Governor's  Island.  This  board  has  charge  of 
such  experiments  at  the  proving -ground  at  Sandy  Hook 
as  are  not  by  law  required  to  be  otherwise  conducted. 
The  members  of  this  board,  associated  with  two  other  of- 
ficers, constitute  the  board  for  testing  rifle  cannon.  The 
proceedings  of  this  board,  limited,  as  its  title  indicates,  to 
experiments  with  rifled  cannon,  are  forwarded  through 
the  Chief  of  Ordnance  to  the  Secretary  of  War. 

A  third  board,  designated  the  Board  on  Ordnance  and 
Defence,  relieves  the  two  before  -  mentioned  boards  of 
much  work.  Being  a  mixed  board,  it  is  independent  of 
the  Ordnance  Department,  except  in  the  matter  of  expen- 
ditures for  ordnance  purposes. 

The  ordnance  proving-ground  is  under  the  command  of 
the  president  of  the  Ordnance  Board,  with  an  officer  as 
assistant  in  charge.  Here  are  mounted  and  proved  all 
new  constructions  in  the  way  of  guns  and  carriages.  All 
experiments  are  here  also  made  with  powders,  high  ex- 
plosives, projectiles,  fuzes,  sabots,  primers,  etc.     The  estab- 


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THE   ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES  29 

lishmont  is  provided  with  the  most  modern  balhstic  instru- 
ments, with  devices  for  the  analysis  of  gunpowder,  and 
with  a  testing  machine  for  metals.  There  is  a  machine- 
shop  at  the  station,  where  all  repairs  are  made,  and  occa- 
sionally original  constructions  of  considerable  importance. 
Prior  to  the  completion  of  the  testing  machine  at  Water- 
town  Arsenal,  all  the  metal  employed  in  gun  construction 
was  tested  here,  and  the  specimens  were  here  cut  out  and 
turned. 

It  is  at  the  proving-ground  that  the  various  inventions 
presented  by  civilians  from  any  part  of  the  country  are 
tested.  The  inventor,  through  his  member  of  Congress, 
approaches  the  Secretary  of  War  with  his  war  balloon,  his 
contrivance  for  tiring  dynamite  shell,  his  improved  pro- 
jectile, sabot,  or  fuze,  and  is  referred  to  the  Chief  of  Ord- 
nance, and  by  him  to  the  Ordnance  Board,  which  carefully 
examines  the  plans  and  specifications.  Unless  the  device 
is  palpably  absurd,  the  inventor  is  then  given  the  oppor- 
tunity of  a  test. 

The  ISTational  Armory  was  established  at  Springfield, 
Massachusetts,  in  1794.  Excepting  occasional  experimen- 
tal work,  the  only  products  of  the  armory  are  rifles,  car- 
bines, and  side-arms.  Pistols  and  Gatling-guns  for  issue 
are  obtained  by  purchase,  but  they  are  inspected  by  offi- 
cers and  employes  of  the  armory.  In  1888  there  were 
manufactured  not  to  exceed  -11,130  rifles  and  carbines,  but 
it  is  stated  that  the  armory  can  now  turn  out  1000  rifles 
per  day.  During  the  Rebellion,  from  1861  to  1865,  there 
were  made  at  this  armory  805,587  rifled  muskets.  One 
important  result  of  the  establishment  of  this  National 
Armory  sliould  not  be  overlooked.  The  Government  has 
here  educated  a  class  of  skilled  workmen,  who  have  been 
distributed  from  time  to  time  through  the  various  private 
establishments  in  tlie  country.     These  from  their  training 


30  THE   ARMY   OF   THE  UNITED   STATES 

have  attained  a  high  standard  of  workmanship,  which  has 
placed  our  private  manufactories  at  the  head  of  this  in- 
dustry. Under  this  tuition  have  been  developed  the  great- 
er number  of  the  labor-saving  and  accurate  machines 
which  are  now  universally  employed  in  the  fabrication  of 
small-arms. 

Frankford  Arsenal,  Philadelphia,  was  established  in 
1816.  At  the  present  time  its  productions  are  limited  to 
the  manufacture  of  ammunition  for  the  rifle,  carbine,  pis- 
tol, and  Gatling-gun,  of  fuzes,  primers,  and  military  pyro- 
techny.  The  powder  used  is  obtained  from  private  man- 
ufacturers, after  inspection  by  ordnance  officers. 

Watervliet  Arsenal. — In  1887  the  principal  fabrications 
at  this  arsenal  were  leather- work,  harness,  equipments,  and 
accoutrements.  Selected,  however,  that  year  by  the  Gun 
Foundry  Board  as  the  most  eligible  arsenal  for  the  con- 
centration of  the  Government  plant,  it  is  now  one  of  the 
most  important  of  ordnance  establishments.  Machinery 
was  transferred  from  Watertown  and  from  the  South 
Boston  Iron-works,  and  with  the  facilities  already  exist- 
ing in  September,  1888,  its  capacity  was  about  fifty  field- 
guns  and  one  eight-inch  and  one  ten-inch  gun  per  year. 
As  funds  become  available  this  plant  will  probably  be  in- 
creased, enabling  the  Government  to  make,  in  limited 
quantities,  modern  guns  of  at  least  twelve-inch  calibre. 

The  Rock  Island  Arsenal  was  established  as  an  arsenal 
of  storage  and  repair,  but  from  its  inception  it  was  hoped 
that  it  might  be  developed  into  an  arsenal  of  construction 
commensurate  with  the  requirements  of  the  Mississippi 
Valley  and  the  West.  In  1865  General  Rodman  assumed 
command,  and  commenced  the  preparation  of  plans  for 
the  construction  of  an  establishment  wliich  should  be  at 
once  an  arsenal  and  an  armory.  The  buildings  and  equip- 
ments, the  plans  of  which  were  somewhat  modified  after 


THE  ARMY  OF   THE   UNITED   STATES  31 

his  death,  are  now  ahnost  completed.  Eight  immense 
finishing -shops,  one  forging -shop  and  foundry,  and  one 
forging-shop  and  mill  are  now  finished,  and  provided  with 
every  modern  appliance.  A  large  part  of  the  stores  for 
issue  to  the  army  are  now  made  at  this  arsenal.  These 
include  horse  equipments  and  cavalry  accoutrements,  in- 
fantry equipments,  targets  and  supplies  for  target  ranges, 
arm  racks,  and  other  like  appliances. 

The  Watertown  Arsenal,  near  Boston,  Massachusetts, 
was  established  in  1816.  The  principal  work  undertaken 
there  of  late  3^ears  has  been  the  manufacture  of  field-guns 
and  projectiles,  the  alteration  of  sea-coast  gun-carriages, 
and  the  manufacture  of  various  experimental  siege  and 
sea-coast  guns. 

The  United  States  Testing  Machine,  the  finest  as  well 
as  the  most  elaborate  machine  in  the  world  for  testing 
the  strength  of  materials,  is  located  at  this  arsenal,  and  is 
in  almost  continual  use  on  work  connected  with  civil  pur- 
suits as  well  as  for  the  Government. 

Benicia  Arsenal  is  important  as  the  only  manufactur- 
ing arsenal  on  the  Pacific  coast,  and  efforts  have  been 
made  to  increase  its  capacity.  At  the  present  time  it  is 
dependent  upon  other  establishments  for  most  ordnance 
supplies. 

The  method  of  appointment  of  officers  to  the  Ordnance 
Department  has  resulted  in  its  being  filled  by  some  of 
the  brightest  and  most  talented  officers  in  the  service. 
Among  the  young  officers  of  the  department  are  found 
those  who  by  earnest  application  have  mastered  and  be- 
come eminently  proficient  in  the  courses  taught  at  the 
Military  Academy  or  the  colleges  of  the  country,  and  who, 
having  carried  their  habits  of  study  and  application  into 
the  army,  have  in  the  season  provided  for  by  law  been  ex- 
amined and  admitted  into  this  important  corps. 


32  THE  ARMY   OF   THE   UNITED   STATES 

In  this  method  of  appointment  it  is  claimed  by  its 
friends  that  the  Ordnance  Department  is  being  recruited 
by  much  of  the  best  material  in  the  army.  The  nature 
of  its  duties  and  the  constant  emulation  in  these  most  im- 
portant departments  of  supply  among  armies  make  this 
a  source  of  gratulation  to  the  American  people. 

The  Signal  Corps,  as  now  constituted,  can  scarcely  be 
said  to  be  a  part  of  the  army,  and  its  organization  is  well 
known. 

ARTILLERY    SCHOOL 

FORT   MONROE,  VIRGINIA 

Though  this  school  was  established  as  early  as  1824, 
when  eleven  companies  of  Artillery  were  ordered  to  take 
station  at  Fort  Monroe  to  constitute  a  corps  of  Artillery 
instruction,  yet  the  school,  as  such,  existed  in  name  only. 
No  attempt  was  made  at  any  system  of  recitation  or 
study;  but  instruction  was  confined  to  practical  artillery 
work,  discipline,  and  such  other  exercises  as  should  be 
practised  at  any  well  regulated  Artillery  post.  Indeed, 
the  institution  was  established  as  a  school  of  Artillery 
practice,  and  was  intended  to  supply  a  remedy  for  the 
evils  which  "  inactivity  and  want  of  competition,"  conse- 
quent upon  the  wide  dispersion  of  the  Artillery  troops  in 
small  garrisons  along  our  extended  frontier,  entailed  upon 
this  diminished  arm  of  the  service.  This  gave  to  the 
Artillery  the  benefits  of  concentration,  and  these  benefits 
were  sufficiently  manifest  within  two  years  to  remove  all 
doubt  of  the  excellence  and  utility  of  the  school. 

The  troops  selected  for  the  school  represented  all  four 
of  the  Artillery  regiments  ;  some  regiments  furnished  two 
companies  and  some  three,  so  that  by  a  system  of  rota- 
tion, all  the  Artillery  companies  could,  in  time,  be  brought 
under  the  established  course  of  instruction. 


THE   ARMY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES  33 

In  ISGT  the  school  was  reorganized  and  pkiced  upon  a 
new  basis ;  it  became  a  school  in  the  true  sense,  wiiere 
student  officers  pursued  a  prescribed  course  of  theoretic 
instruction  by  recitation,  and  followed  this  by  practical 
work  in  the  field. 

The  system  of  to-day  is  essentially  that  of  1867,  with 
such  improvements  in  the  methods  of  instruction  as  ex- 
perience suggested,  and  such  modifications  of  the  curric- 
ulum as  were  necessary  from  time  to  time  to  keep  pace 
with  the  progress  of  the  times. 

Prior  to  1875  the  course  covered  but  one  year ;  at  that 
time  it  was  changed  and  extended  to  cover  two  years, 
though  no  corresponding  increase  in  the  scope  of  instruc- 
tion was  introduced. 

In  1878  Congress  appropriated  $3925  for  the  purposes 
of  the  school  equipment,  etc.,  and  since  that  time  has  ap- 
propriated $5000  annually ;  this  amount  has  been  judi- 
ciously expended,  so  that  now  the  school  is  fairly  equipped 
in  its  various  departments. 


THE    PRESENT    SCHOOL 

ORGANIZATION 

"  The  Artillery  school  consists  of  the  commandant,  the 
directors  of  instruction,  instructors,  assistant  instructors, 
and  such  officers,  troops,  and  enlisted  men  as  ma}^  be 
assigned  to  it  for  duty  or  instruction." 

The  management  of  instruction  is  intrusted  to  the  staff 
composed  of  the  commandant,  the  two  other  field  officers 
of  Artillery  stationed  at  the  school — who  are  the  directors 
of  instruction  —  and  the  commandino^  officer  of  the  Fort 
Monroe  Arsenal ;  the  adjutant  of  the  post  is  secretary  of 
the  staff. 


34  THE  AEMY  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

The  instructors  are  selected  at  large  from  the  Artillery 
arm  on  account  of  special  fitness,  and  assigned  to  the 
charge  of  the  different  departments  of  instruction. 

Five  batteries  of  Artillery,  one  from  each  Artillery 
regiment  in  the  service,  are  stationed  here  as  instruction 
batteries.  The  captains  of  these  batteries  are  instructors 
in  practical  tactics,  discipline,  etc.,  and  remain  permanently 
with  their  batteries,  while  the  subalterns  of  each  battery 
are  the  student  officers  from  the  regiment  to  which  the 
battery  belongs. 

The  garrison  includes  one  extra  battery,  making  a  total 
of  six  batteries,  but  the  officers  of  this  are  not  in  the  class 
undergoing  instruction.  A  band  is  also  specially  provided, 
and  forms  a  part  of  the  permanent  garrison. 

INSTRUCTION 

The  instruction  is  divided  into  two  general  depart- 
ments ;  one  for  officers  and  one  for  enlisted  men,  the 
latter  being  naturally  much  simpler  than  the  former,  and 
a  decidedly  secondary  object  of  the  school. 

Let  us  look  first  at  the  commissioned  officers'  depart- 
ment. 

The  class  is  composed  ordinarily  of  twenty  officers, 
four  from  each  regiment,  who  are  nominated  by  the  reg- 
imental commander.  A  regular  roster  is  kept,  and  those 
officers  are  detailed  who  have  been  longest  off  this  duty. 
The  custom  has  been  to  detail  two  first  lieutenants  and 
two  second  lieutenants ;  but  as  this  operates  to  return 
some  lieutenants  who  have  been  through  the  school, 
while  leaving  others  wnth  the  regiment  who  have  not  had 
that  advantage,  it  is  probable  that  the  custom  will  be 
modified  so  that  four  lieutenants,  irrespective  of  rank, 
will  be  detailed.     This  will  operate  to  send  young  officers 


THE  ARMY  OF   THE  UNITED  STATES  35 

to  the  school  within  from  two  to  five  years  after  joining 
their  regiments,  a  period  best  suited  to  tlie  benefit  of  the 
individual  and  the  interests  of  the  school.  The  course 
covers  two  years,  and  but  one  class  at  a  time  is  under 
instruction. 

The  members  of  the  new  class  report  on  September  1st, 
when  ten  days  are  allowed  for  settling  in  their  quarters 
and  getting  ready  for  work.  On  the  10th  the  course  be- 
gins and  continues  until  July  1st ;  on  the  1st  of  September 
following  the  work  is  resumed  and  continues  until  July 
1st  as  before,  a  short  period  of  cessation  being  allowed  at 
the  discretion  of  tlie  commandant  for  the  holidays. 

This  covers  all  the  time  except  July  and  August  of 
each  year,  and  these  months  are  devoted  to  the  regular 
Artillery  target  practice. 

The  day  is  divided  into  two  recitation  hours ;  the  a.m., 
9.30  to  12.30,  and  the  p.m.  from  2.30  to  4.30;  dress  parades 
and  drills  in  season,  take  place  after  the  p.m.  recitation. 
Practical  work  in  any  branch  of  instruction  is  usually 
assigned  to  the  p.m.  hours. 

The  course  comprises  the  following  subjects,  each  cover- 
ing the  time  set  after  it : 

Engineering,  10  Aveeks  (a.m.  hour) ;  Steam  and  Mechan- 
ism, 13  weeks  (a.m.  hour)  ;  Ballistics,  exterior,  forty-nine 
recitations  (a.m.  hour) ;  interior,  sixteen  recitations  (a.m. 
hour) ;  Artillery,  theory,  17  weeks  (a.m.  hour);  Electricity 
and  Submarine  IVlining,  theory  and  laboratory,  13  weeks 
(a.m.  and  p.m.  hour,  alternate  days) ;  Military  Science, 
15  weeks  (a.m.  hour) ;  Chemistry  and  High  Explosives, 
13  Aveeks  (a.m.  and  p.m.  hours) ;  Cordage,  1  weeks  (p.m. 
hour).  Telegraphy,  25  weeks ;  Photography,  1  weeks,  (p.m. 
hour). 

In  addition  to  the  foregoing,  which  may  be  called  the 
theoretical  part  of  the  course.  Artillery  practical  exercises 


36  THE  ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

are  carried  on  through  the  entire  two  years.  These  com- 
prise exercises  in  field '  guns,  including  machine  guns ; 
siege  guns,  howitzers,  and  mortars;  sea -coast  guns  and 
mortars,  and  machines  and  appliances  for  moving  heavy 
Artillery  ;  Artillery  firing  practice  :  This  latter  includes 
firing  at  known  distances  and  at  unknown  moving  target, 
and  with  sea-coast  guns  and  mortars,  siege  guns  and  how- 
itzers, and  mortars ;  field  and  machine  guns.  Instruction 
in  Infantry  drill,  as  well  as  the  small-arms  firing,  is  also 
carried  on  in  appropriate  season. 

A  graduating  thesis  is  prepared  by  each  member  of 
the  class  upon  some  military  subject  assigned  to  him  by 
the  staff.  The  class  is  arranged  according  to  order  of 
merit,  as  determined  by  the  staff  from  a  consideration  of 
the  daily  marks  of  the  instructors,  the  examinations,  es- 
says, maps,  etc  The  staff  notes  in  each  department  those 
student  officers  who  are  entitled  to  be  "  Distinguished," 
and  also  states  the  professional  employments  for  which 
any  of  them  seem  to  be  specially  qualified.  Those  offi- 
cers who  pass  successfully  through  the  entire  course  of 
instruction  receive  certificates,  signed  by  the  staff,  setting 
forth  their  proficiency. 

The  compass  of  this  article  will  not  permit  the  mention 
of  more  details  of  this  course  of  instruction ;  it  may  be 
remarked,  however,  that  the  course  is  comprehensive  and 
thorough,  as  well  as  exceedingly  well  adapted  to  fit  the 
student  not  only  for  his  own  arm  of  the  service,  but  for 
the  more  general  duties  that  may  devolve  upon  an  officer 
of  the  line. 

THE  ENLISTED   MEN'S   DEPARTMENT 

The  charge  of  this  department  is  consigned  to  an  officer 
or  officers  detailed  by  the  commandant  for  the  purpose. 


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THE  ARMY   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES  39 

Attendance  is  compulsory  upon  the  non-commissioned 
oificers,  and  optional  witli  the  privates.  Upon  completing 
the  course  and  passing  a  satisfactory  examination,  each 
non-commissioned  officer  is  entitled  to  a  certificate  of 
proficiency,  which  excuses  him  from  further  attendance. 
The  course  extends  over  two  years,  and  comprises  the  fol- 
lowing subjects : 

FIRST  TERM 

The  use  of  angle-measuring  instruments,  including  quad- 
rants, azimuth  instrument,  transit  and  protractor,  plotting 
board  in  vessel -tracking,  etc. ;  sights  and  sighting;  im- 
plements used  in  mechanical  manoeuvres ;  adjustments  of 
instruments  used  in  target  practice. 

SECOND   TERM 

Tidball's  Manual;  gunnery;  use  and  care  of  machine 
guns,  etc. 

THIRD  TERM 

Elementary  surveying ;  lectures  on  permanent  and  field 
fortifications ;  practical  work  in  field  fortifications,  con- 
structing batteries,  revetments,  bridges,  etc. ;  lectures  on 
high  explosives. 

FOURTH  TERM 

Electricity:  batteries,  telegraph  instruments,  dynamos, 
etc.;  transportation  of  Artillery  on  land  and  water;  notes 
on  military  h3^giene ;  practical  instruction  in  moving  boil- 
ers and  engines  in  Artillery  school  shops ;  tactics,  outpost 
duty,  scouts,  etc. 

Examinations  in  this  department  are  annually  conducted 
by  the  staff  of  the  school,  or  b}^  committees  thereof  ap- 
pointed by  the  commandant. 


40       THE  ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED  STATES 

GENERAL  REMARKS 

It  should  be  remembered  that  the  best  military  author- 
ities advocated  the  necessity  of  this  school  at  the  time  of 
its  first  establishment.  To  understand  how  much  more 
important  it  is  now,  we  have  but  to  consider  how  im- 
measurably greater  are  the  requirements  of  an  artillery 
officer  of  to-day.  The  requirements  are  based  upon  the 
modern  development  of  ^var  appliances,  the  use  of  elec- 
tricity, torpedoes,  and  dynamite,  a  knowledge  of  which 
involves  a  knowledge  of  many  cognate  branches  of  science 
heretofore  considered  as  unconnected  with  the  military  art. 

METHOD   OF   INSTRUCTION 

The  method  of  instruction  was  and  is  still,  to  a  large 
extent,  by  recitation;  the  need  for  this  has  passed  away, 
and  the  school  is  rapidly  approaching  the  system  indispu- 
tably adapted  to  the  class  of  students  sent  there,  i.e.,  the 
lecture  system. 

In  1867  many  men  who  had  gone  to  the  war  instead  of 
the  college  and  served  their  country  with  distinction, 
were  assigned  to  the  Artillery  arm.  These  men  lacked  a 
fundamental  knowledge  of  mathematics,  especially  in  the 
higher  forms,  so  essential  to  the  pursuit  of  a  scientific 
course;  they  lacked  also  the  mental  discipline  and  habit 
of  study  that  might  have  been  theirs  had  they  continued 
their  collegiate  courses.  Now  all  this  has  been  changed. 
The  student  officers  are,  almost  without  exception,  young 
graduates  of  the  Military  Academy,  and  as  a  result  the 
study  of  mathematics  has  been  dropped,  and  the  time 
heretofore  allotted  to  that  preparatory  study  is  now  spent 
on  the  main  objects  of  the  school.  In  two  of  the  courses 
recitation  has  been  entirely  abandoned,  and  it  is  doubtless 


THE  AR3IY   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES  41 

the  intention  of  the  present  staff  to  go  further  in  this 
direction.  Thev  are  movin«'  witli  wisdom,  and  hence  with 
caution,  towards  this  imjjortant  change.  It  is  even  to  be 
hoped  that  the  change  will  go  further,  and  result  in  an 
elective  course  at  this  school.  This  is  an  age  of  specialists, 
and  we  could  perhaps  better  subserve  the  interests  of  our 
service  by  educating  a  special  talent  in  one  subject. 

LIBRARY 

The  school  library  has  received  special  attention  from 
the  staff  of  the  school,  and  every  effort  has  been  made  to 
improve  its  condition.  The  library  began  with  a  donation, 
many  years  ago,  and  has  been  added  to  from  time  to  time 
as  funds  became  available.  It  is  essentially  a  military 
librar}^,  and  comprises  upwards  of  -1000  volumes  of  stand- 
ard authority.  The  lighter  books  of  romance,  etc.,  have 
been  removed  from  the  library  and  consigned  to  the  post 
reading-room  for  the  enlisted  men. 

INFANTRY  AND  CAVALRY  SCHOOL 

This  school,  at  Fort  Leavenworth,  Kan.,  was  estab- 
lished in  1881,  as  a  school  of  application  for  Infantry  and 
Cavalry,  "similar  to  that  now  in  operation  for  the  Artillery 
at  Fortress  Monroe."  The  Artillery  school  at  Fortress 
Monroe  was  taken  as  a  model,  and  the  regulations  gov- 
erning there  were  to  prevail  until  a  new  code  could  be 
prepared  and  approved ;  necessarily,  then,  this  school  is 
very  similar  to  the  one  just  described. 

The  school  consists  of  three  field  officers  of  Infantry  or 
Cavalry,  such  instructors  and  assistant  instructors  from 
the  army  at  large  as  may  be  needed,  and  eight  instruction 
organizations,  four  companies  of  Infantr}^  and  four  troops 


42  THE  ARMY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

of  Cavalry.  In  addition  to  these  there  is,  of  course,  the 
class  of  student  officers  who  are  detailed  one  from  each 
Cavalry  and  Infantry  regiment  in  the  service,  and  such 
other  officers  and  enlisted  men  as  may  be  sent  there  for 
instruction. 

The  headquarters  of  an  Infantry  regiment  is  habitually 
stationed  at  the  post,  and  the  colonel  is  the  commandant 
of  the  school.  This  furnishes  a  band  to  the  school  for 
military  exercises.  The  student  officers  are  assigned  to 
the  different  companies  for  regular  instruction  in  duty  and 
discipline,  as  the  Artillery  officers  are  attached  at  For- 
tress Monroe. 

The  staff  of  the  school  consists  of  the  instructors  in 
charge  of  the  seven  departments  of  instruction,  hereafter 
to  be  mentioned,  and  their  duties  are  analogous  to  those 
of  the  Artillery-school  staff.  A  secretary  of  the  school 
is  appointed  by  the  commandant ;  he  acts  as  secretary  of 
the  staff,  and  is  the  custodian  of  school  records,  the  school 
fund,  and  property  purchased  from  this  fund. 

The  school  is  divided  into  seven  departments  : 

Department  of  Military  Art,  department  of  Military 
Engineering,  department  of  Infantry,  department  of  Cav- 
alry, department  of  Law,  department  of  Military  Hygiene, 
department  of  Artillery  (including  a  limited  course  in 
Ordnance  and  Gunnery). 

INSTRUCTION 

The  course  of  instruction  embraces  two  years  of  study 
and  practical  exercises,  each  year  constituting  a  term. 
The  first  term  begins  on  September  15th,  the  second  on 
September  1st,  and  both  end  on  May  31st.  The  fifteen 
days  from  September  1st  of  the  first  term  are  allowed  for 
the  new  class  to  get  settled  in  quarters.     The  months  of 


THE   ARMY   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES  43 

July  and  August  are  devoted  to  practical  exercises  in  the 
field. 

The  student  ofiicers  are  arranged  in  one  class,  and 
divided  into  sections  of  convenient  size  for  the  purpose  of 
instruction.  Daily  marks  are  kept  of  the  recitations,  and 
student  officers  may  be  transferred  from  one  section  to 
another  by  the  commandant  upon  the  recommendation 
of  the  instructor.  At  the  end  of  each  week  the  instructors 
submit  a  report  of  the  marks  given  to  the  officers  under 
their  instruction,  and  such  marks  are  considered  bv  the 
staff  in  determining  the  proficiency  and  standing  of  the 
students. 

The  studies  embrace  the  study  of  text-books  and  recita- 
tions therefrom,  supplemented  by  lectures  and  exercises 
in  application. 

EXAMINATIONS 

Examinations  are  semi-annual,  and  are  held  in  January 
and  June,  under  the  supervision  of  the  staff  of  the  school. 

In  determining  the  order  of  merit  of  the  students  in 
any  branch,  the  daily  recitation  marks,  the  examination 
marks,  and  any  essays,  papers,  maps,  etc.,  that  may  have 
been  required,  are  all  taken  into  consideration  by  the 
board.  In  determining  final  order  of  merit,  due  weight 
is  given  to  the  proficiency  of  the  student  in  field  exercises; 
his  ability  to  command,  direct,  and  impart  instruction  ; 
his  soldierly  bearing,  and  such  other  qualities  as  go  to 
make  up  a  good  officer. 

COURSE  OF  INSTRUCTION 

Of  the  course  of  instruction  but  a  brief  general  idea 
may  be  given. 

The  department  of  Military  Art  comprises  eight  differ- 


44  THE   ARMY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

ent  parts,  including  strategy,  tactics,  grand  and  minor 
tactics,  reconnaissances,  military  geograpb}'^,  etc.  Under 
each  of  these  heads  the  details  are  thoroughly  studied. 

Exercises  in  application  also  form  one  of  the  branches 
of  this  department,  and  under  it  the  student  is  required 
to  write  an  essay,  and  make  drawings  explaining  in  detail 
the  attack  and  defence  of  a  selected  piece  of  ground  as- 
signed to  him  for  the  purpose. 

The  department  of  Engineering  is  divided  into  six 
parts,  including  topography,  field  engineering,  field  forti- 
fication, signaling  and  telegraphy,  and  building  superin- 
tendence. 

Under  the  first,  instruction  is  given  in  the  use  of  sur- 
veying instruments,  and  in  making  the  various  kinds  of 
surveys,  leveling,  etc.  Under  the  second,  hasty  intrench- 
ments,  defilade,  and  like  instruction  is  given  practically 
in  the  field.  Under  field  engineering,  bridge -building, 
and  railroad  -  building,  management,  and  destruction  are 
taught.  The  other  subjects  indicate  the  scope  of  instruc- 
tion given  under  them.  The  dejjartment  of  Law  is  di- 
vided into  three  parts :  military,  constitutional,  and  inter- 
national. 

Under  the  Infantry  and  Cavalry  departments,  instruc- 
tion is  given  in  the  authorized  tactics  pertaining  to  these 
branches,  as  well  as  in  Infantry  field  service,  fire  tactics, 
equitation,  and  hippolgy. 

Under  the  department  of  Artillery  instruction  is  given 
in  the  manual  of  field  pieces,  macliine  guns,  mechanical 
manoeuvres,  ammunition,  official  courtesies,  and  the  dif- 
ferent systems  of  breech-loaders. 

The  student  ofiicers  of  this  school  may  be  either  grad- 
uates or  non-graduates  of  the  Military  Academy'-  at  West 
Point;  but  it  is  to  the  non  -  graduates  that  the  school  is 
specially  beneficial.     Many  of  these  young  men,  appoint- 


THE  ARMY   OF   THE  UNITED   STATES  45 

ed  from  civil  life  or  from  the  meritorious  list  of  non-com- 
missioned officers,  have  had  but  an  elementary  education, 
and  no  instruction  in  the  military  art.  Here  they  find 
opportunity  to  familiarize  themselves  with  their  profes- 
sion, and  acquire  information  and  habits  of  study  which 
prepare  them  for  their  subsequent  duties,  and  put  it  in 
their  power  to  become  efficient  army  officers. 

It  is  customary  to  send  these  young  men  to  the  school 
within  two  to  four  years  after  their  appointment,  if  pos- 
sible, and  there  teach  them  the  rudiments  of  their  profes- 
sion early  in  their  career. 

LIGHT   AETILLERY  AND   CAVALRY   SCHOOL 

FOKT   RILEY,  KAN. 

By  act  of  Congress,  approved  January  29,  1887,  the 
Secretary  of  War  was  "  authorized  and  directed  to  estab- 
lish upon  the  military  reservation  at  Fort  Riley  a  perma- 
nent School  of  Instruction  for  drill  and  practice,  for  the 
Cavalry  and  Light  Artillery  of  the  United  States.  .  .  ." 
By  the  same  act  the  sum  of  $200,000  was  appropriated 
for  the  construction  of  necessary  quarters,  barracks,  and 
stables.  Work  upon  the  buildings  was  begun  as  soon  as 
practicable,  and  we  now  have  constructed  a  post  credit- 
able to  the  service,  and  entirely  adequate  to  the  purpose 
for  which  it  is  intended. 

The  post  is  divided  into  two  parts;  one  for  Cavalry 
and  the  other  for  Artillery,  and  both  are  well  supplied 
with  quarters,  barracks,  and  stables.  A  riding- hall  has 
also  been  erected,  in  which  the  troopers  can  be  thorough- 
ly instructed  in  horsemanship,  and  the  various  exercises 
pertaining  to  that  branch  of  instruction. 

All  recruits  for  the  Cavalry  are  required  to  be  sent  to 
this  post,  and,  as  a  result,  the  mounted  organizations  are 


46  THE  ARMY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 

to  receive  recruits  well  grounded  in  the  duties  pertaining 
to  the  horse.  The  school  is  not  yet  in  full  operation,  it 
having  been  regularly  established  as  recently  as  March 
14,  1892,  by  orders  from  the  War  Department. 

The  order  establishing  the  school  requires  that  "the 
garrison  shall  consist  of  one  regiment  of  Cavalry,  such 
batteries  of  Light  Artillery,  not  exceeding  five,  as  may  be 
found  practicable,  and  such  other  olRcers  and  enlisted 
men  as  may  be  assigned  to  duty  at  the  school  for  instruc- 
tion." 

The  colonel  of  the  Cavalry  regiment  is  the  command- 
ing officer  of  the  school,  and  he,  with  the  field  officers  of 
the  Cavalry  and  Artillery  present,  constitute  the  school 
staff. 

The  troops  of  each  arm  constitute  a  sub-school  of  prac- 
tice, each  under  a  director,  who  is  the  senior  officer  of  the 
arm  present,  not  including  the  commanding  officer  of  the 
school.  The  adjutant  of  the  Cavalry  regiment  is  the 
secretary  of  the  school. 

The  princii^al  object  of  the  school,  as  announced  in  the 
order  establishing  it,  is  instruction  in  the  combined  opera- 
tions of  Cavalry  and  Light  Artillery.  One -half  of  the 
school  year  is  to  be  devoted  to  the  instruction  of  the  sub- 
school  in  its  own  particular  arm ;  the  other  half  to  the 
instruction  in  combined  operations.  The  schedule  of  each 
year's  instruction  is  to  be  arranged  by  the  staff  of  the 
school,  but  nothing  has  as  yet  been  announced  from  this 
source. 

RECRUITING 

With  this  hurried  glance  at  its  organization,  we  now 
proceed  to  consider  the  method  of  recruiting  the  line  of 
the  army. 

The  recruiting  of  the  army  depends  on  voluntary  enlist- 


THE   ARMY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES  47 

ment ;  the  term  of  service  is  five  years.  In  all  the  princi- 
pal business  centres  of  the  country,  on  a  side  street  near 
one  of  the  main  thoroughfares,  the  recruiting  office  may 
be  found.  It  is  designated  by  an  American  flag  not  too 
ostentatiously  displayed,  and  is  generally  up  one  flight  of 
uncovered  stairs.  In  front  of  the  doorway  in  favorable 
weather  a  neat,  dapper,  well-dressed  man  in  blue,  with 
brass  buttons,  stripes  on  trousers,  and  chevrons  on  close- 
Iv-fitting,  well-made  blouse,  may  be  seen ;  this  is  the  re- 
cruitino-  sero-eant.  And  while  none  of  the  wiles  known 
to  the  English  recruiting  sergeant  in  securing  recruits  are 
supposed  to  be  practised  by  him  of  the  United  States 
army,  he  undoubtedly  paints  the  service  to  the  inquiring 
seeker  after  military  glory  in  as  rose-colored  tints  as  his 
views  of  fair  dealing  will  permit.  The  first  inquiry  as  to 
the  candidate  is  regarding  his  physical  fitness  for  the  serv- 
ice. To  determine  this  he  is  critically  examined  by  a 
surgeon  of  the  army.  This  examination  also  involves  his 
habits,  and  as  far  as  possible  his  character  and  past  record. 
If  everything  is  satisfactory  the  candidate  is  received  as  a 
recruit,  is  dressed  in  the  fatigue  uniform  of  a  soldier,  and 
despatched  to  the  rendezvous  at  Jefferson  Barracks  if  he 
enlists  for  the  cavalry,  or  to  Columl^us  Barracks  or  Da- 
vid's Island  if  he  chooses  the  infantry  or  artillery.  At 
the  rendezvous  he  is  taught  his  duties,  and  is  drilled  to  a 
fair  state  of  soldierly  perfection,  after  which  he  is  assigned 
to  his  regiment  and  conducted  to  his  new  home  on  the 
frontier. 

Here  for  more  than  half  a  century,  with  the  exception 
of  the  period  of  the  Civil  War,  the  greater  part  of  the  reg- 
ular army  has  been  employed  in  keeping  the  peace  be- 
tween the  Indians  and  whites.  This  has  required  mili- 
tary operations  of  more  or  less  importance,  which  have  at 
all  times  been  attended  with  bloodshed  and  loss  of  life, 


48 


THE  ARMY   OF  THE   UNITED   STATES 


though  not  always  recognized  as  attaining 

a  magnitude  to  entitle  them  to  the  name 

of  war.     Faithfulness  to  its  trusts  has 

characterized  the  army  in  all  this  work 

as  an  advance-guard  of  civilization,  in 

the  immense  regions  added  to  our 

territory'  by  the  Louisiana  purchase 

and  the  war 
with  Mexico. 
It  stood  guard 
over  the  scat- 
tered and  mea- 
gre improve- 
ments of  the 
pioneer  long 
before  and 
during  the 
time  that  thou- 
sands of  miles 
of  railroads 
were  being 


THE    RECRUITING    SERGEANT 


built,  and 
when  the  only 
lines  of  travel  were  the  trails  of  millions  of  wild  animals 
now  nearly  annihilated.  In  this  time  cities  numbering 
thousands  of  inhabitants  have  replaced  the  rude  habita- 
tions of  the  frontiersmen,  and  the  walls  of  hundreds  of 
manufactories  stand  where  a  few  years  since  the  Indian 
pitched  his  tepee  unmolested. 

In  recent  years  much  as  been  done  to  popularize  the 
army  with  the  young  men  of  the  country.  By  new  regu- 
lations a  soldier  may  be  discharged  under  certain  condi- 
tions after  three  years'  service  upon  his  own  application, 
or  he  may  purchase  his  discharge  under  regulations  made 


THE  ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES  49 

in  the  interest  of  those  who  have  good  reasons  for  en- 
gaging in  other  pursuit.  In  addition  to  these  advantages 
in  the  case  of  legitimately  severing  his  connection  with 
the  army,  everything  possible  has  lately  been  done  to  im- 
prove the  daily  life  of  the  soldier.  He  is  furnished  with 
good  clothing,  excellent  food,  means  of  amusement,  school 
advantages  which,  in  addition  to  liberal  pay  and  pros- 
pects of  promotion  equal  to  those  of  any  profession,  open 
to  young  men  of  the  country  a  most  desirable  occupation. 
A  term  of  service,  judiciously  spent  in  the  army,  is  an  ad- 
vantage to  a  young  man,  second  only  to  a  university 
course.  It  improves  him  physically,  broadens  his  mental 
view,  and  fits  him  to  compete  in  life  with  the  educated 
and  enterprising.  Some  of  the  most  successful  men  in 
the  western  country  are  among  those  who  have  served  a 
term  of  enlistment  in  the  army.  They  are  proud  of  their 
service  and  grateful  for  the  advantages  it  has  brought 
them.  1^0  young  man  not  having  superior  advantages 
need  now  hesitate  to  adopt  the  army  as  an  experience 
which  will  increase  his  opportunities  for  success  in  any 
profession. 


THE  ARMY  AS  A  NATIONAL  POLICE 

Any  characterization  of  the  occupation  of  the  army 
which  fails  to  refer  to  its  services  in  maintaining  order  as 
a  national  police  is  not  complete.  True,  the  intervention 
of  the  army  has  not  often  been  necessary,  but  the  occa- 
sions when  it  has  been  called  on,  and  the  manner  of  effi- 
cient work,  show  how  much  the  knowledge  of  its  existence 
alone  does  in  keeping  turbulent  spirits  quiet. 

The  particulars  of  the  riots  of  1877  are  now  matters  of 
history.  They  commenced  in  West  Virginia  and  Mary- 
land, reaching  their  greatest  fury  in  Pennsylvania,  and 


50  THE   ARMY   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

spread  throughout  the  Middle  States  and  the  "West,  The 
civil  authorities  were  unable  to  contend  with  them,  and 
in  the  three  States  above  mentioned  the  State  Executives 
called  on  the  President  for  assistance  from  the  army.  In 
other  States  threatened,  as  in  Indiana,  Kentucky,  Ohio, 
Illinois,  Missouri,  Kew  Jersey,  and  New  York,  United 
States  troops  were  present  to  protect  the  property  of  the 
general  government,  and  their  presence  undoubtedly  saved 
communities  from  depredations. 

It  is  not  necessary  to  enter  into  calculations  as  to  what 
might  have  occurred  if  the  power  of  the  army  had  not 
been  invoked.  It  is  a  fact  that  wherever  the  army  was, 
in  even  the  smallest  force,  the  mobs  were  awed  into  silence 
and  quietness,  and  peace,  without  the  destruction  of  prop- 
erty or  loss  of  life,  was  established ;  and  where  the  army 
was  not,  the  reverse  occurred.  The  blood  shed  and  prop- 
erty destroyed  were  not  the  only  injuries  resulting  from 
the  success  of  the  turbulent  elements.  A  graver  danger 
threatened  the  thousands  of  residents  in  the  larger  cities, 
resulting  from  the  paralyzation  of  traffic  and  the  failure 
of  supplies. 

The  riots  threatened  for  about  a  month,  and  in  some 
parts  of  the  country  the  presence  of  troops  was  required 
for  a  much  longer  season.  The  Executives  of  States  and 
officers  of  corporations,  without  dissent,  bore  testimony  to 
the  efficiency  of  the  army,  wherever  present,  in  quelling 
disturbances,  and  this  effectively  and  without  loss  of  life 
or  property.  Could  the  better  classes  of  those  who  com- 
menced the  troubles  have  expressed  themselves,  they 
would  undoubtedly  have  joined  in  commending  the  meth- 
ods of  the  army,  for 

''If  it  were  done,  when  'tis  done,  then  'twere  well 
It  were  done  quickly." 


THE  ARMY    OF   THE   UNITED   STATES  51 

THE  RELATION   OF   THE  ARMY   TO   THE   MILITIA 

From  whatever  point  of  view  the  operations  of  the  army 
are  discussed,  whether  as  a  force  to  defend  the  country 
against  foes  from  without,  to  fight  Indians  and  compel 
their  obedience  to  the  laws  of  civilization,  or  to  maintain 
the  domestic  peace  of  the  nation,  one  fact  is  prominent 
above  all  others,  and  that  is  that  our  armv  has  not  been, 
and  is  not  now,  of  adequate  strength.  The  changes  which 
have  taken  place  in  the  science  of  war  render  an  increase 
imperative. 

The  militia  of  the  United  States  will  answer  well  the 
purpose  of  a  "  second  line  "  in  case  of  war  with  a  foreign 
power,  but  it  is  not  now,  and  never  has  been  in  the  first 
days  of  war,  fit  to  take  the  field.  This  may  not  be  a  pop- 
ular view  to  take  of  our  citizen  soldiers,  but  it  is  a  fact 
that  not  one  single  circumstance  in  all  our  experience  as 
a  nation  contradicts.  Our  Civil  War  was  with  an  enemy 
as  deficient  as  ourselves  in  instructed  soldiers,  and  during 
the  first  year  of  the  war  there  was  not  a  battle  fought 
where  half  the  number  of  regular  soldiers  would  not  have 
defeated  both  armies  united.  In  saying  this  in  regard  to 
the  militia  it  is  not  intended  to  underrate  the  material  of 
which  it  is  composed.  In  my  opinion  there  is  not  an 
army  in  the  world  that  could  defeat  an  equally  strong 
American  army,  prepared  with  proper  drill  and  discipline. 
But  these  take  time,  and  neither  ukase  of  Czar,  bull  of 
Pope,  nor  act  of  Congress  can  make  an  army  without 
them. 

It  was  not  till  one  year  after  the  commencement  of  the 
Rebellion  that  we  had  an  army  prepared  to  take  the  field, 
endure  the  hardships  of  a  campaign,  and  fight  battles ;  but 
from  that  time  on,  supplying  fresh  material  from  the 
farm,  the  shop,  and  the  oflBce,  we  had  till  the  end  as  good 


52  THE  ARMY   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

iirmies  as  the  world  ever  saw.  But  if  we  are  involved  in 
war  with  a  foreign  power  a  year's  time  will  not  be  given 
us  to  prepare. 

The  war  between  France  and  Austria  (1859)  lasted  two 
months,  and  that  between  Austria  and  Prussia  (1866)  last- 
ed little  more  than  a  month.  The  Franco-Prussian  war 
of  1870,  in  Avhich  the  territory  of  the  French  was  com- 
pletely overrun,  their  capital  and  central  city  besieged 
and  captured,  and  the  nation  made  to  pay  a  ransom  such 
as  modern  statesmen  had  not  dreamed  of,  was  finished  in 
a  little  more  than  half  a  year.  The  war  between  Kussia 
and  Turkey,  with  its  sieges  of  fortified  places  and  severe 
battling  at  the  passage  of  rivers  and  mountain  ranges,  was 
concluded  in  much  less  time  than  one  year.  In  other 
words,  no  war  between  the  war-making  powers  of  Europe 
in  the  last  thirty  years  has  occupied  the  time  it  Avould 
take  to  prepare  the  best  reserves  we  have  for  the  field. 

It  is  easy  to  understand  why  the  militia  are  not  efficient 
for  war.  The  merchant  cannot  go  into  court  and  conduct 
an  intricate  law  case  to  a  successful  conclusion,  nor  can 
the  mechanic  prove  a  successful  tradesman.  Enthusiasm 
and  patriotism  will  not  only  not  gain  battles,  but  may  add 
to  the  gravity  of  disaster ;  and  experience  shows  that  in 
the  midst  of  hardships  in  the  field  and  the  terrors  of  battle 
they  soon  disappear,  succumbing  to  the  thousand  and  one 
reasons  which  present  themselves  to  the  mind  why  one 
should  rather  be  at  home  supporting  those  who  are  de 
pendent  on  him  than  in  the  field  following  a  trade  he  has 
never  learned,  and  in  regard  to  which  he  has  been  de- 
ceived. 

Then  when  battles  come,  and  disasters  follow,  there  is 
an  accord  in  the  disposition  to  make  excuse — "  incompe- 
tent generals,"  "overwhelming  numbers,"  "masked  bat- 
teries," and  "  Black-horse  Cavalry,"  any  or  all  these,  with 


THE  ARMY  OF  THE   UNITED   STATES  53 

a  thousand  and  one  consequences,  such  as  being  "  cut  to 
pieces,"  ''  overwhehned  and  demoralized,"  and  other  imag- 
inary features,  figure  with  themselves  and  with  their 
friends  at  home  to  account  for  defeat.  This  was  not  only 
so  in  the  commencement  of  the  Civil  War,  but  the  same 
things  were  heard  from  individuals  in  the  army  of  France 
during  the  war  with  Germany.  As  the  unfitness  of  un- 
trained soldiers  is  more  marked  the  more  difficult  war- 
making  becomes,  it  is  certain  that  the  militia  will  be  even 
less  efficient  in  the  future  with  the  changed  conditions  of 
"war. 

An  English  authority  on  this  subject  says  :  "  Formerly 
we  depended  on  the  perfect  drilling  of  our  men ;  hence- 
forward it  is  upon  the  efficiency  of  battle  training  and  fire 
discipline  we  shall  have  to  rely.  Unless  our  regiments  be 
first-rate  in  both  those  points  we  can  no  longer  hope  for 
victory,  although  they  may  be  able  to  march  past  like  a 
wall,  and  go  through  the  most  complicated  barrack-yard 
evolutions  with  the  utmost  precision." 

It  is  said  that  even  in  the  German  army,  perfected  as  it 
was  for  war  in  1870,  numerous  mistakes  in  troop-leading 
and  tactics  were  made.  AVhat  is  claimed  for  this  army  is 
that  its  discipline  is  so  perfect  that  the  officers  and  men 
leai-n  by  actual  experience  in  battle  how  to  avoid  and 
how  to  repair  their  mistakes,  and  apply  these  lessons  at  tlie 
time.  The  state  of  preparation  which  permits  this  con- 
cedes an  amount  of  drill  and  discipline  of  which  the  best- 
trained  soldiers  in  our  army  have  never  dreamed. 

It  is  no  part  of  the  purpose  of  this  paper  to  enter  into 
the  details  of  the  changed  conditions  of  war,  or  the  mod- 
ifications which  they  necessitate  in  the  modern  army.  It 
is  enough  to  say  that  the  officer  must  be  as  intelligent 
and  brave  as  heretofore,  and  more  than  this,  he  must  be  a 
student,  and  devote  his  time  to  his  profession  as  has  hith- 


54  THE  ARMY  OF  THE  UNITED   STATES 

erto  been  required  of  those  who  hoped  to  succeed  in  the 
law  or  in  medicine.  The  days  for  the  devil-may-care,  hap- 
py-go-lucky leaders  of  forlorn  hopes  have  passed.  An  ac- 
complished authority  has  declared  that  armies  are  no  lon- 
ger machines — they  are  living  organisms ;  and  the  leaders 
of  men  in  the  line  of  the  army  must  know  all  about  tac- 
tics, and  must  not  be  without  a  knowledge  of  military  sci 
ence  in  its  higher  applications.  The  heavy  lines  in  battle 
have  disappeared.  Fighting  must  hereafter  be  done  in 
dispersed  order.  The  shoulder  -  to  -  shoulder  movements, 
under  lire,  which  gave  confidence  to  the  recruit  standing 
side  by  side  with  the  veteran,  will  not  be  known  in  the 
successful  armies  of  the  future,  but  the  dispersed  order, 
where  the  individual  discipline  of  the  poorest  soldier  in 
the  shock  of  battle  is  the  measure  by  which  the  strength 
of  armies  must  be  tested. 

There  is  one  reflection  with  which  the  people  of  this 
nation  may  be  gratified,  and  that  is  that  the  material  it 
possesses  for  the  war-making  of  the  future  is  superb.  The 
pluck,  intelligence,  and  self  -  reliance  inherent  in  the  An- 
glo-Saxon are  the  qualities  which,  properly  handled,  must 
make  the  best  soldier  for  the  modern  army.  But  while 
we  have  the  metal  in  the  crude  state,  it  needs  reducing 
and  refining  to  become  the  stuff  of  which  armies  are 
made. 

As  it  seems  to  be  the  policy  of  Congress  not  to  increase 
the  army  to  the  strength  thought  necessary,  it  remains  to 
devise  the  best  means  open  for  the  Government  to  pre- 
pare, without  an  increase  of  the  army,  for  the  exigencies 
of  war.  The  suo^o-estions  made  bv  those  who  have  studied 
this  subject  all  look  to  an  expansion  of  our  present  organi- 
zations for  the  purpose.  With  a  view  to  this  the  infantry 
regiments  should  be  given  an  organization  to  consist  of 
three  or  four  battalions,  with  a  corresponding  increase  of 


THE  AllMY   OF  THE  UNITED   STATES  55 

oflBcers.  Then  the  details  of  the  expansion  could  be  ea- 
sily carried  out,  and  our  small  army  augmented  to  over 
100,000  men,  composed  in  its  increase  of  those  who  had 
seen  service  of  one  kind  or  another.  Such  an  army  might 
be  strong  enough  to  combat  the  advance  of  any  foreign 
army  which  could  be  thrown  on  our  shores,  and  the  militia 
in  volunteer  organizations  would  form  a  "  second  line." 


THE  STANDING  ARMY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 


TK  England,  from  time  immemorial,  there  has  been  an 
-■-  instinctive  dislike  and  distrust  of  a  standing  army.* 
In  days  gone  by  it  was  commonly  regarded  as  a  menace 
to  what  we  believed  to  be  our  inherited  liberties.  When 
"  divine  right  "  carried  real  power  with  it,  our  kings  gen- 
erally understood  when  it  was  necessary  to  give  way  with 
a  generous  grace  to  all  just  and  strongly  expressed  popular 
demands.  The  strong  and  wise  knew  when  to  concede; 
the  weak,  foolish,  obstinate,  and  shallow  seldom  perceived 
when  the  time  had  arrived  for  concession.  The  Tudor 
sovereigns  belonged  to  the  former,  the  Stuart  kings  to  the 
latter  class.  Charles  I.  strove  long  and  gallantly  to  coerce 
his  people  by  means  of  an  army,  which,  it  may  be  said,  was 
furnished  by  the  landed  gentry.  Cromwell,  one  of  the 
very  greatest  of  our  rulers,  governed  the  country  by  means 
of  an  army  with  a  grasp  and  power  which  no  sovereign 
since  his  day  could  pretend  to  wield.  His  standing  army 
of  about  80,000  men  was,  I  think,  by  far  the  finest  in 
every  respect  that  we  know  of  in  modern  history.  His 
government  was  essentially  military,  and  the  civil  rights 
of  the  community  were  ignored  when  they  clashed  in  any 
way  with  the  army  exigencies  of  the  moment.  In  this  re- 
spect Charles  II.  would  have  liked  to  follow  in  his  foot- 
steps, but  he  lacked  the  spirit  and  courage  to  make  the 
attempt,  nor  did  he  possess  the  self-abnegation  which  fail- 
ure would  have  entailed.     His  great  dread  always  was 

*  This  was  written  in  1888-89,  but  the  figures  have  been  corrected  to 
1892. 


60  THE   STANDING   ARMY    OF   GREAT  BRITAIN 

that  he  might  have  to  begin  again  those  "  travels  "  which 
were  associated  in  his  mind  with  everything  that  made 
life  miserable.  His  brother,  James  II.,  less  wise,  but  more 
obstinate  and  daring,  openly  strove  to  rob  the  people  of 
their  civil  and  religious  liberties  by  means  of  the  standing- 
army  he  had  collected  ostensibly  for  the  suppression  of 
Monmouth's  rebellion.  He  was  driven  from  the  throne  by 
William  III.  and  his  Dutch  troops,  backed  up  by  a  combi- 
nation of  those  who  then  possessed  most  power  in  Eng- 
land, and,  above  all  things,  helped  by  the  influence  which 
Lord  Churchill  was  able  to  exert  over  that  very  standing 
army  in  which  James  had  placed  so  much  reliance.  Had 
the  Prince  of  Orange  failed — and  I  believe  he  would  have 
failed  if  Churchill  had  thrown  his  conscientious  scruples 
about  Protestantism  to  the  winds — James  would  certainly 
have  ruled  despotically  without  a  Parliament  by  means  of 
a  standing  army,  as  Cromwell  had  done. 

All  through  the  reign  of  William  III.  the  people  evinced 
the  greatest  jealousy  of  the  troops  he  kept  constantly  un- 
der arms.  The  nation  was  determined  he  should  have 
only  a  few  battalions  to  guard  his  person,  and  to  garrison 
the  scant  number  of  fortified  places  on  the  coast  we  then 
possessed.  Ungenerous  as  this  conduct  was  towards  a 
prince  to  whom  they  owed  so  much,  with  the  events  of 
the  Commonwealth  and  of  James  II.  so  fresh  in  their 
recollection,  it  is  little  wonder  that  our  forefathers  should 
have  had  so  great  a  dread  of  a  permanently  embodied 
army.  This  dread  became  an  inherited  prejudice  with 
the  English  people,  and  continued  to  be  an  article  of  na- 
tional belief  long  after  the  danger  which  gave  it  birth  had 
entirely  disappeared. 

To  this  prejudice  was  added,  later  on,  a  strong  dislike 
to  an  establisliment  whose  members  were  governed  by 
laws  on  entirely  different  lines  from  those  under  which 


BRITISH    INFANTRY    SOL: 


EW    MAGAZINE    RIFLE 


THE   STANDING  ARMY   OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  63 

the  civil  community  existed.  Then,  again,  tlie  oiRcers 
were  drawn  abnost  exclusively  from  the  sons  of  peers  and 
the  landed  gentry — an  exclusiveness  that  did  not  add  -to  its 
popularity.  The  idea  of  a  military  caste,  separated  from 
the  general  body  of  the  people,  was  extremely  distasteful 
to  all  classes.  The  debates  in  Parliament,  when  it  was 
first  proposed  to  build  barracks  for  our  soldiers  at  home, 
instead  of  having  them  billeted  upon  the  public-houses, 
indicate  the  prejudice  which  then  existed  against  tlie 
army,  and  the  objections  entertained  against  any  measure 
which  tended  to  widen  the  gulf  already  existing  between 
the  soldier  and  the  citizen.  In  fact,  until  lately,  the  sol- 
dier has  never  been  permanently  popular  in  England, 
whatever  might  be  the  feelings  towards  him  in  moments 
of  great  national  danger.  The  following  doggerel  has 
always  been  only  too  true  : 

"When  war  is  rife  and  danger  nigh, 
'  God  and  the  soldier '  is  the  people's  cry ; 
When  peace  is  made  and  all  things  righted, 
God's  forgot  and  the  soldier  slighted." 

It  was  the  creation  of  the  Yolunteer  force  which  first 
gave  the  British  soldier  any  good  and  permanent  social 
position.  That  force  so  well  represents  all  classes  that  its 
respect  for  the  army  on  which  it  was  modelled,  and  by 
whose  members  it  was  drilled  and  trained,  has  caused  the 
soldier  to  be  now  regarded  everywhere  with  general  in- 
terest. 

It  is  a  curious  fact  that  the  objects  for  which  our  army 
exists  have  never  been  clearly  defined.  Its  original  purpose 
was  the  defence  of  the  realm,  to  which  was  subsequently 
added  that  of  aiding  the  civil  power  to  maintain  law  and 
order.  In  the  preamble  to  the  annual  "Mutiny  Act," 
which  governed  the  army  until  the  passing  of  the  "Army 


64  THE   HTANDING  ARMY   OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 

Act"  in  1880,  it  was  stated  how  the  "raising  or  keeping 
a  standing  army  at  home  in  time  of  peace,  unless  with  the 
consent  of  Parliament,  is  against  law."  It  then  recorded 
the  decision  of  Parliament,  "  that  a  body  of  forces  should 
be  continued  for  the  safety  of  the  empire  and  the  preser- 
vation of  the  balance  of  power  in  Europe."  This  policy 
of  the  "  balance  of  power  "  had,  I  may  say,  been  invented 
by  William  III.,  and  the  reference  to  it  which  I  have 
quoted  was  retained  in  the  preamble  to  our  military  code 
until  1868,  when  it  disappeared  forever. 

The  early  histor}^  of  our  oldest  regiments  would  be  a 
history  of  England  between  the  military  but  glorious  rule 
of  Cromwell  and  the  accession  of  the  house  of  Hanover. 
It  would  be  impossible  to  attempt  here  even  any  bare  re- 
cital of  those  regiments'  names  and  titles.  Two  regiments 
of  Foot  and  one  of  cavalry  had  their  origin  in  our  acquisi- 
tion of  Tangier  as  part  of  poor  Queen  Catharine's  dowry. 
In  the  reigns  of  Charles  11.  and  James  II.,  and  for  many 
reigns  afterwards,  most  of  our  foot  regiments  consisted  of 
only  one  battalion  of  from  six  to  sixteen  companies.  In 
peace  these  companies  were  often  reduced  to  only  fifty 
men  each ;  but,  as  a  rule,  the  company  was  composed  of 
one  captain,  two  lieutenants,  two  ensigns,  three  sergeants, 
three  corporals,  two  or  three  drummers,  and  one  hundred 
privates.  The  captain  when  on  duty  carried  a  pike,  the 
lieutenants  partisans,  the  ensigns  half-pikes,  and  the  ser- 
geants halberds.  In  each  company  of  a  hundred  men 
thirty  were  armed  with  pikes  fourteen  feet  long,  sixty 
with  matchlock  muskets,  thirteen  with  firelocks,  and  all 
carried  swords  besides.  Not  until  1745  were  the  swords 
taken  from  the  private  infantry  soldier.  In  1678  a  grena- 
dier company  was  added  to  all  regiments,  each  man  of 
which  carried  a  fusil  with  slings,  and  a  bayonet,  a  grenade 
pouch,  a  hatchet  fastened  with  a  girdle,  and  a  cartridge-box. 


THE   STANDING  ARMY   OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  65 

This  use  of  the  grenade  by  the  infantry  soldier  was  con- 
tinned  only  to  the  end  of  the  seventeenth  century.  The 
peculiar  dress  and  special  arms,  etc.,  of  these  men  are  thus 
referred  to  in  the  old  and  well-known  song  of  the  "  British 
Grenadiers." 

"  Then  let  us  crown  a  bumper. 

And  di'ink  a  health  to  those 
Who  carry  caps  and  pouches, 

Who  wear  the  looped  clothes  ; 
We'll  give  it  from  our  hearts,  mj'  boys, 

We'll  give  it  with  three  cheers. 
Then  huzza,  huzza,  huzza,  huzza, 

For  the  British  Gi'enadiers." 

Although  grenades  soon  fell  into  disuse,  the  companies 
concerned  continued  to  retain  their  name  of  grenadiers 
until  quite  recent  years.  The  men  in  the  Grenadier  Com- 
pany were  selected  as  being  the  tallest  in  the  battalion, 
just  as  those  of  the  Light  Company  were  chosen  for  being 
the  smartest,  best  drilled,  and  best  shots  in  it.  The  flank 
companies  of  each  battalion  were  thus  composed  of  select- 
ed men,  and  during  war  it  was  a  very  common  practice  to 
form  those  of  each  Division  or  Brigade  into  one  or  more 
choice  battalions.  Altogether,  this  sj^stem  of  flank  com- 
panies was  a  bad  one,  for  in  order  to  form  two  good  com- 
panies in  each  battalion  the  remaining  companies  were 
almost  emasculated.  It  exists  no  longer,  but  we  perpetu- 
ate the  name  in  the  very  old  regiment  now  known  as  the 
"  Grenadier  Guards." 

The  pikemen  and  musketeers  wore  round  hats  with 
broad  brims  turned  up  on  one  side,  not  at  all  unlike  the 
present  full-dress  hat  of  the  United  States  army.  The 
grenadiers  wore  fur  caps  with  high  crowns,  and  crests 
made  of  fox  tails.  Evelyn  in  his  diary  mentions  seeing 
this  newly  raised  arm  during  a  visit  he  paid  to  the  camp 

5 


66  THE  STANDING   ARMY   OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 

at  Hounslow  in  1678.  He  says,  "  They  had  furr'd  caps 
with  coped  crowns  like  Janizaries,  wliich  made  them  look 
very  fierce,  and  some  had  long  hoods  hanging  down  be- 
hind, as  we  picture  fools.  Their  clothing  being  likewise 
pybald,  yellow  and  red." 

The  practice  of  clothing  soldiers,  by  regiments,  in  one 
uniform  dress  was  not  introduced  by  Louis  XIY.  till  1665, 
and  did  not  become  general  in  our  army  for  many  years 
afterwards.  It  is,  however,  curious  to  note,  that  for  the 
hard  marching  and  many  bodily  exercises  which  fall  to 
the  soldier's  lot  on  active  service,  our  army  was  more  suit- 
ably dressed  in  the  reigns  of  William  III.  and  of  Queen 
Anne  than  it  has  been  generally  this  century.  We  have 
lately  done  something  to  improve  our  style  of  soldier's 
dress,  but  no  men  tied  up  as  ours  are  in  tightly  fitting  tu- 
nics can  do  a  satisfactory  day's  work  during  war.  We 
dress  our  sailors  for  the  work  they  have  to  do,  but  we  still 
cling  to  a  theatrical  style  of  garments  for  the  soldier. 
There  are,  however,  some  difficulties  attached  to  this  ques- 
tion of  dress  in  an  army  raised,  as  ours  is,  on  a  system  of 
voluntary  enlistment.  We  must  make  the  soldier's  cloth- 
ing acceptable  to  the  men  who  have  to  wear  it,  and,  strange 
to  say,  they  like  very  tightly  fitting  coats  and  trousers,  to 
swagger  about  in  with  their  sweethearts.  They  like  those 
ridiculous  forage-caps  stuck  on  the  side  of  their  heads,  and 
which  are  no  protection  from  either  sun  or  rain.  I  sup- 
pose the  house-maid  "Jill"  prefers  her  soldier  "Jack"  in 
this  outlandish  costume,  for  in  no  other  wav  can  I  under- 
stand  why  tlie  wearers  should  like  such  tawdry  and  un- 
comfortable finery.  The  change  hoped  for  generally  is 
that  we  should  have  two  costumes — one  for  active  service 
and  field  manoeuvres,  of  the  color  we  use  in  India — it  is  a 
light  tawny,  resembling  that  of  the  hare — and  fitting  very 
easily  everywhere,  especially  about  the  throat ;  the  other, 


•      ■''     •  '-Iff     -  . 


CROMWELL    AT    MARSTON    MOOR 


scarlet  and  very  smart,  and  ornamented  with  braids  and 
buttons  as  at  present,  to  satisfy  the  young  soldier  and  his 
"  Mary  Anne."  In  all  our  recent  little  wars  we  have  used 
a  special  dress  made  for  the  occasion,  and  what  we  now 
want  is  to  make  that  special  dress  the  undress  uniform  of 
the  arm}^.  Is  there  any  one  outside  a  lunatic  as3dum  who 
would  go  on  a  walking  tour,  or  shoot  in  the  backwoods  or 
the  prairies,  trussed  and  dressed  as  the  British  soldier  is  ? 
This  applies  to  all  ranks,  for  I  confess  to  a  feeling  that  the 
dressed-up  monkey  on  a  barrel-organ  bears  a  strong  resem- 


68  THE   STANDING  ARMY   OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 

blance  to  the  British  general  in  his  meaningless  cocked  hat 
and  feathers  of  the  last  century,  and  in  his  very  expen- 
sive coat,  besmeared  both  before  and  behind  with  gold- 
lace. 

From  Queen  Elizabeth's  time  to  that  of  William  III., 
each  company  carried  a  color,  and  the  company  was,  in 
consequence,  styled  an  "  ensign."  The  latter  monarch  re- 
duced the  number  of  colors  to  three  per  regiment — one 
for  the  pikemen  in  the  centre,  and  one  for  the  grenadiers 
and  musketeers  on  each  flank.  Each  arm  had  thus  its  own 
color  in  the  event  of  its  being  separated  from  the  others. 
In  Queen  Anne's  reign  the  number  of  colors  was  reduced 
to  two,  at  which  it  still  remains.  Modern  arms  of  pre- 
cision, and  the  tactics  they  have  rendered  necessary,  have, 
however,  struck  a  death-blow  at  the  use  of  colors  in  ac- 
tion. The  color  in  the  German  army  has  been  reduced  to 
a  pole,  for  when  the  silk  part  faded  away  and  disajDpeared 
in  the  course  of  time,  it  was  never  renewed.  This  color- 
staff  can  be  easily  carried  in  action  without  attracting  an 
enemy's  attention,  while  our  large  silken  colors  cannot  be 
so.  We  give  each  regiment  and  battalion  new  colors 
when  the  old  ones  are  worn  out,  and  consequently  we  have 
been  forced  in  all  our  recent  little  wars  to  leave  our  col- 
ors behind.  The  general  who  would  condemn  any  one 
to  carry  a  large  silk  standard  under  a  close  musketry  fire 
ought  to  be  tried  for  murder. 

Until  the  days  of  Frederick  the  Great  our  men  always 
stood  on  parade  with  their  legs  somewhat  apart,  as  all  or- 
dinary human  beings  do  when  standing  still.  It  was  then 
we  introduced  the  grotesque  absurdity  of  standing  with 
heels  close  together.  A  child  can  push  over  sidewa3^s  the 
tallest  soldier  when  standing  in  this  unnatural  and  con- 
strained position.  Until  we  go  back  to  the  ordinary  hab- 
its of  man  as  regards  his  natural  movements,  we  shall 


THE  STANDING    ARMY   OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  69 

never  get  as  much,  out  of  the  soldier  as  lie  is  able  and 
willing  to  give  the  nation. 

When  James  II.  came  to  the  throne  our  standing  army 
numbered  about  20,000.  The  population  of  England  Avas 
then  about  5,000,000 — that  is,  one  soldier  to  every  250 
people.     K'ow  the  proportion  is  1  to  about  183. 

It  was  our  wars  with  France  which  made  us  a  nation. 
It  would  seem  that  constant  pressure  from  ever-present 
danger  is  required  to  consolidate  the  foundations  on  which 
alone  true,  sound  nationality  can  be  built  up.  The  history 
of  those  wars  is  a  proud  record  for  the  English-speaking 
race  of  all  countries.  But  although  our  reputation  for 
courage  and  dogged  determination  has  been  high  in  all 
ages,  I  think  that  our  present  military  renown  may  be 
said  to  date  no  further  back  than  to  the  victories  of  Marl- 
borough. For  centuries  we  have  plumed  ourselves  upon 
the  glorious  events  of  Crecy  and  Agincourt,  but  it  was 
Marlborough  who  first  showed  Europe  that  England  could 
not  only  produce  stout  soldiers,  but  also  able  generals  to 
lead  them.  William  III.  was  found  great  fault  with  be- 
cause he  preferred  to  employ  Dutch  to  English  generals ; 
but  the  accusation  was  unfair.  With  the  exception  of 
Marlborough,  we  had  no  man  then  capable  of  conducting 
a  war.  Tlie  science  of  war  had  not  been  studied  in  Eng'- 
land,  and  even  its  arts  were  very  imperfectly  known.  In 
Charles  II. 's  time  we  had  to  send  to  Holland  or  to  France 
Avhen  we  required  a  general. 

Until  political  faction  had  undermined  Marlborough's 
reputation  he  was  generally  popular,  and  his  popularity 
rested  very  much  on  the  fact  that  he  was  the  first  Eng- 
lishman who  had  distino-uished  himself  abroad  as  a  fi-en- 
eral ;  indeed,  the  first  great  English  military  leader  since 
the  regicide  CromweU.  Marlborough  showed  astonished 
Europe  that  an  English  army,  led  by  English  officers, 


0" 


70  THE   STANDING  ARMY  OF   GREAT  BRITAIN 

could  triumph  over  the  veteran  armies  of  France,  led  by 
the  ablest  marshals  of  Louis  XIV.  It  may  be  said  with  all 
truth  that  the  military  spirit  which  characterized  our  army 
under  Wellington,  and  which  still  animates  her  Majesty's 
troops,  was  born  at  Blenheim. 

Military  service  has  never  been  very  popular  with  the 
English  people.  Even  in  Anne's  reign,  when  Marlbor- 
ough's victories  gave  glory  and  lustre  to  our  arms,  re- 
cruits were  obtained  with  much  difficulty.  The  jails  were 
often  emptied  to  send  the  prisoners  as  soldiers  to  Spain 
or  Flanders.  During  Marlborough's  glorious  decade  the 
press-gang  was  at  work  everywhere;  all  justices  of  the 
peace  were  authorized  to  use  it.  Only  those  who  had 
votes  for  Parliament  were  exempt  from  its  dreadful  clutch- 
es, and  the  power  it  gave  was  often  shamefully  abused. 

We  now  obtain  as  many  recruits  as  we  require,  and  they 
are  quite  as  good  as  those  we  used  to  obtain  thirty  years 
ago,  or  at  any  period  during  this  century.  ]S^o  one  can 
have  a  higher  opinion  of  our  rank  and  file  than  I  have. 
Varied  recollections  of  their  daring  valor  when  greatly 
outnumbered,  their  uncomplaining  endurance,  unquestion- 
ing obedience,  and  their  devotion  to  Queen  and  country, 
endear  them  to  me  with  the  strongest  ties.  It  is  because 
of  my  regard  and  affection  for  them,  as  well  as  on  public 
grounds,  that  I  long  to  see  all  bad  characters,  and  those 
who  have  no  love  for  their  trade,  driven  from  the  army. 
But  to  enable  this  to  be  done,  a  solid  increase  to  the  pay 
of  the  private  soldier  is  indispensable.  Without  such  in- 
crease we  can  never  hope  to  compete  for  the  best  men  in 
the  open  labor  market.  The  number  of  recruits  we  re- 
quired annually  was  very  small  during  peace,  when  men 
enlisted  either  for  life  or  twenty-one  years.  The  few  who 
joined  a  regiment  during  the  year  could  be  easily  hidden 
away  in  the  rear  rank  until  they  "  filled  out "  and  grew  ta 


'     •"5   \ 


OFFICER  OF  THK   GUARDS    IN   THKIR   FIRST   AFRICAN   CAMPAIGN    (TANGIER,   ICSC) 


THE   STANDING  ARMY   OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  V3 

be  men.  AYe  cannot  do  this  now,  for  every  corps  requires 
from  three  to  four  times  as  many  recruits  as  formerly,  and 
the  consequence  is,  battaUons  at  home  are  so  drained  an- 
nually to  supply  trained  soldiers  to  the  foreign  battalions 
of  their  own  regiments  that  they  consist  almost  entirely 
of  young  striplings.  In  the  seventeentli  and  eighteenth 
century  wars  the  men  forced  into  the  army  by  the  press- 
gangs  were  kept  as  long  as  the  Crown  had  use  for  them  ; 
but  those  who  enlisted  voluntarily  were  engaged  for  only 
two  or  three  years,  or,  still  more  commonly,  for  the  dura- 
tion of  the  war.  Men  have,  very  naturally,  always  had  a 
great  repugnance  to  engaging  for  long  periods ;  and  even 
with  the  high  bounties  we  offered  during  the  great  war 
with  Napoleon,  we  could  only  obtain  lads  so  young  and 
unformed  as  to  be  unfit  for  the  fatigues  of  active  service 
in  the  field.  Whenever  in  our  history  we  have  experienced 
difficulty  in  obtaining  the  number  of  recruits  required,  we 
have  invariably  made  it  a  practice  to  reduce  the  period  for 
which  the  man  was  asked  to  engage.  For  instance,  dur- 
ing the  Crimean  war  we  were  glad  to  enlist  mere  boys — 
we  could  not  obtain  men — for  two  years.  A  short-service 
system  is  therefore  nothing  new  in  our  army.  How  much 
men  prefer  short  periods  of  enlistment  was  proved  a  few 
years  ago  when  the  numbers  in  our  brigade  of  Foot  Guards 
fell  off  very  seriously.  "We  could  not  obtain  suitable  re- 
cruits, so  the  period  of  service  with  the  colors  was  reduced 
to  three  years,  and  with  the  best  results.  The  brigade 
filled  up  to  its  establishment  in  a  few  months.  There  has 
been  a  great  deal  of  a  very  misleading  character  said  and 
written  about  our  adoption  of  a  short-service  system,  but 
the  fact  is,  it  was  forced  upon  us.  We  could  no  longer 
keep  the  army  up  to  its  establishment  under  the  old  sys- 
tem ;  so,  if  for  no  other  reason,  we  should  have  been  com- 
pelled to  reduce  the  term  of  service  with  the  colors.     But 


14:  THE   STANDING   ARMY   OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 

there  was  another  and  a  very  cogent  reason,  namely,  the 
necessity  of  creating  an  army  reserve.  To  have  left  the 
army  any  longer  without  a  good  reserve  would,  in  our  next 
big  war,  have  inevitably  led  to  a  military  collapse  and  fail- 
ure similar  to  that  which  we  experienced  in  1854—55  when 
at  war  with  Russia.  AVlien  our  little  army  perished  before 
Sebastopol,  chiefly  through  the  ignorance  of  the  ministry 
which  had  sent  it  there,  we  had  no  troops  in  reserve  to 
replace  it.  That  lesson  sank  deeply  into  the  minds  of  all 
thinking  soldiers,  and,  as  a  consequence,  the  creation  of  an 
effective  army  reserve  had  long  been  called  for.  The  sub- 
ject was  never  grappled  with  in  any  practical  fashion  un- 
til 1870,  when  Mr.  Card  well  put  it  in  the  fore-front  of  the 
army  reforms  he  meant  to  carry  out. 

You  may  collect  together  in  a  few  months  a  great  mass 
of  armed  men  that  will  do  to  fight  another  mass  of  men 
similarly  organized  and  constituted,  but  all  experienced 
soldiers  know  how  ridiculous  it  would  be  to  send  newly- 
raised  and  untrained  levies  into  action  against  a  well- 
established  regular  army.  As  no  State  could  afford  to 
keep  permanently  under  arms  all  the  soldiers  it  would  re- 
quire for  a  serious  war,  the  present  system  of  army  re- 
serves has  become  general,  and  such  reserves  can  only  be 
obtained  by  a  well-regulated  short-service  system.  Our 
present  system  of  Army  Reserve  is  not  satisfactory.  The 
men  are  never  called  out  for  training,  nor  are  they  ever 
inspected  to  see  that  they  are  fit  for  work,  or  even  in  the 
country.  To  drill  them  for  a  fortnight  every  two  years 
would  cost  money,  so  it  must  not  be  thought  of.  This  is 
on  a  business  par  with  the  man  who  bought  an  expensive 
engine  to  protect  his  house  from  fire,  but  who  would  not 
pay  the  few  shillings  annually  for  the  oil  which  was  nec- 
essary to  keep  it  in  working  order. 

The  present  establishment  of  the  British  standing  army 


Wooo|y:/(^_ 


\ 


OFFICEU    OF    THE    GUARDS    IN   THF.IR    LAST    AFRICAN    CAMPAIGN    (mETEMNEH,  1SS6) 


'^^-^   OF  THR      ""v^ 

[UHIVEESIT71 


THE    STANDING   ARMY   OF   GREAT  BRITAIN  77 

(all  ranks  included)  is  as  follows :  cavalry,  20,896 ;  infan- 
try, 141,602 ;  artillery,  35,902  ;  engineers,  7120 ;  colonial 
troops,  5239 ;  departmental  corps,  9702  ;  staff  of  militia 
and  volunteers,  6934;  and  miscellaneous  establishments, 
857.  This  gives  a  total  of,  say,  228,000  of  all  ranks.  The 
First  Class  Army  Eeserve  now  consists  of  about  80,000 
men,  which,  added  to  this  total,  gives  a  grand  total  for  our 
standing  army  of,  say,  in  round  numbers,  308,000  men. 
The  number  of  horses  and  mules — officers'  chargers  not 
included — is  25,871,  of  which  a  very  small  proportion  are 
mules.  The  law  forbids  us  ever  to  exceed  by  one  man  or 
horse  at  any  time  throughout  the  year  the  establishment 
fixed  annually  by  Parliament ;  so,  with  an  army  scattered 
all  over  the  world,  it  is  practically  impossible  to  keep  it 
actually  up  to  that  fixed  number.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  we 
are  generally  now  about  one  thousand  under  our  estab- 
lishment. Our  number  of  field  guns  on  peace  establish- 
ment is  600,  to  which  36  guns  would  be  added  upon  the 
mobilization  of  the  army. 

Of  this  army  72,648  British  soldiers,  11,303  horses,  and 
318  guns  are  in  India;  36,126  men  and  947  horses  are 
abroad  elsewhere ;  the  balance  being  at  home. 

In  addition  to  this,  we  have  an  Indian  regular  army  of 
21,700  native  cavalry,  109,000  native  infantry,  and  2000 
native  artillerv,  all  under  the  command  of  1411  British 
officers.  With  the  exception  of  48  mounted  guns,  all  the 
artillery  in  India  is  now  English.  From  these  figures  it 
will  be  seen  that  of  the  army  with  which  we  hold  India, 
not  more  than  36  per  cent,  are  English,  while  64  per  cent, 
are  natives. 

This  article  deals  only  with  our  regular  army,  but  still 
it  would  be  absurd  to  make  no  allusion  in  it  to  the  yeo- 
manry, militia,  and  Volunteer  forces.  I  shall  not  attempt 
any  description  of  them,  but  will  content  myself  with  giv- 


78  THE   STANDING  ARMY   OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 

ing  their  numbers.    The  actual  strength — all  ranks  includ- 
ed— of  all  the  military  forces  of  the  Crown  is  as  follows : 

REGULAR  STANDING   ARMY 

Total  of  all  Eauks 
At  home 114,931 

Abroad 108,774 

First  Class  Army  Reserve. 80,000 

Militia  Reserve  for  Regular  Army 30,000—333,705 

Yeomaury  Cavalry 11,000 

Militia,  exclusive  of  Militia  Reserve 108,000* 

Volunteers 260,000—379,000 

Native  Army  of  India 134, 100 

Grand  Total 846,805 

Besides  the  numbers  here  given  there  are  about  800,000 
men  Avho  have  been  trained  as  Yolunteers,  one-quarter  of 
whom,  it  is  calculated,  would  be  available  for  the  defence 
of  the  country  if  the  emergency  w^ere  great.  I  do  not 
profess  to  enter  upon  the  strength  of  the  military  forces 
maintained  by  Canada,  Australia,  and  our  other  colonies, 
but  they  are  of  great  importance.  Their  importance  will 
be  fully  recognized  by  the  w^orld  wdienever  God  in  His 
mercy  is  pleased  to  send  us  a  statesman  wise  enough  and 
great  enough  to  federate  and  consolidate  into  one  united 
British  Empire  all  the  many  lands  and  provinces  w^hich 
acknowledge  Queen  Victoria  as  their  sovereign. 

The  organization  of  our  infantry  of  the  line  is  based 
on  the  theory — I  regret  it  is  still  only  a  theory — that  one 
half  of  the  battalions  should  be  at  home,  the  other  abroad. 
This  balance  is,  however,  often  disturbed,  for  many  years 
together,  by  foreign  complications  —  the  occupation  of 
Egypt,  for  example ;  but  the  measures  prescribed  by  our 
military  system  to  meet  these  contingencies  are   never 

*  Includes  Channel  Isles  milita. 


THE   STANDING   ARMY   OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 


79 


carried  out  by  any  government.  The  reason  for  this  un- 
bnsinesshke  departure  from  our  accepted  mihtary  system 
is,  that  to  readjust  that  balance  would  require  the  addi- 
tion of  some  battalions  to  the  army,  and  would  consequent- 
ly entail  expense,  owing  to  the  somewhat  larger  estab- 
lishment of  men  we  should  require.     The  result  of  this 


BENGAL  LANCERS — INDIAN  NATIVE  CAVALRY 


80  THE  STANDING  AEMY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 

false  economy  is,  that  our  whole  military  machinery  is  al- 
ways seriously  strained,  and  that,  in  order  to  make  "  both 
ends  meet "  we  have  to  send  young  and  immature  youths 
to  fill  up  the  annual  wear  and  tear  of  our  battalions 
abroad. 

This  expedient  leads  to  increased  mortality,  more  young 
soldiers  in  hospitals,  a  larger  number  sent  home  annual- 
ly for  discharge  as  invalids,  and  consequently  a  larger 
number  of  recruits  to  take  their  places.  These  broken- 
down  and  starving  creatures,  who  are  to  be  found  in  our 
workhouses  and  as  beggars  on  every  highway,  bring  the 
army  into  disrepute  among  the  classes  from  which  we 
obtain  recruits.  There  never  was  a  more  cruel  or  a 
more  short-sighted  or  a  more  unbusinesslike  policy  than 
that  of  sending  immature  youths  to  do  the  work  of  men 
soldiers  in  India  and  in  other  very  hot  countries.  But 
until  the  home  establishments  have  been  augmented,  and 
the  balance  restored  between  the  number  of  battalions 
abroad  and  those  at  home  which  have  to  annually  supply 
the  former  with  drafts  of  trained  soldiers,  our  present 
vicious,  dangerous,  and  unbusiness-like  practice  will  have 
to  be  continued.  The  British  soldier  is  now  enlisted  for 
twelve  years,  seven  of  which,  if  at  home,  and  eight  if  in 
India,  are  spent  with  the  colors,  the  remainder  as  a  civil- 
ian in  the  First  Class  Army  Reserve.  In  our  depart- 
mental service  we  seldom  keep  tlie  private  soldier  more 
than  three  or  four  years,  the  remainder  of  his  term  of 
twelve  years  being  passed  in  the  army  reserve.  In  the 
Foot  Guards,  also,  the  men  are  only  enlisted  for  three 
years'  color  service.  Those  household  troops  never  go 
abroad  during  peace,  so  there  is  no  diificulty  in  carry- 
ing out  this  very  short  service  system  with  them.  It  is 
very  much  to  be  regretted  that  we  cannot  extend  that 
system  to  the  whole  of  the  army.     It  would  vastly  in- 


THE   STANDING  ARMY  OF  GREAT  BRITAIN  81 

crease  the  popularity  of  our  military  service  if  we  could 
do  so. 

A  far  larger  proportion  of  well-to-do  men  enlist  now  than 
formerl3\  The  advantages  which  the  non-commissioned 
officer  enjoys,  both  in  pay  and  pension,  are  at  last  begin- 
ning to  be  generally  known,  and  men  enlist  for  the  career 
thus  offered  to  all  well-behaved  and  fairly -educated  men. 
Many  sons  of  gentlemen  also  enlist  now  in  the  hope  of 
obtaining  commissions.  Fifty-three  sergeants  became  of- 
ficers in  1886;  in  1887  the  number  was  fifty -one;  and 
in  1888,  up  to  September  1st,  forty-five  commissions  were 
given  to  men  from  the  ranks.  In  one  regiment  not  long 
ago  the  colonel  told  me  he  had  thirty  sons  of  gentle- 
men in  the  ranks,  whose  influence  he  assured  me  had  im- 
proved the  tone  of  the  whole  regiment.  A  large  propor- 
tion of  these  young  gentlemen  come  from  those  who  have 
failed  to  obtain  commissions  by  competitive  examination. 
The  pay  of  a  private  soldier  of  a  line  infantry  regiment 
— which  is  the  smallest  man's  rate  of  pay  in  the  army 
— is  1^.  per  diem.  In  addition  to  his  pay  he  receives 
a  daily  ration  of  three-quarters  of  a  pound  of  meat  and 
one  pound  of  white  bread.  During  peace  everything  else 
he  requires  as  food  he  has  to  purchase  from  his  daily  pay. 
When  on  active  service  he  is  well  fed  free  of  all  charge. 

There  has  been  a  great  deal  of  nonsense  talked  and 
written  of  late  about  the  insufficiency  of  the  soldier's 
food.  The  fact  is,  he  gets  plenty  to  eat,  but  he  has  to 
pay  for  much  of  it  out  of  his  own  pocket.  Examine  any 
corps  on  parade,  and  the  plump,  ruddy  appearance  of  the 
men  will  prove  how  well  he  is  fed.  In  addition  to  the 
daily  rations,  w^hich  I  have  already  described,  every  com- 
pany mess  purchases  tea,  sugar,  milk,  vegetables,  etc.,  at 
a  daily  cost  of  about  Si;d.  to  each  man.  Most  men  also 
buy  in  their  canteens  beer,  hot  sausages,  butter,  jam,  and 


82  THE   STANDING  ARMY   OF  GREAT   BRITAIN 

other  luxuries.  In  his  recreation-room  the  soldier  can  be 
served  at  all  hours  with  good  tea,  coffee,  bread-and-but- 
ter, etc.  The  question  for  the  Government  to  consider  is 
how  much  of  the  soldier's  daily  food  is  to  be  paid  for  l)y 
the  State. 

Except  when  on  guard  or  other  duty,  the  soldier  is  gen- 
erally master  of  his  own  time  after  3  o'clock  p.m.  He  has 
to  be  in  barracks  at  9  or  9.30  p.m.,  according  to  the  season 
of  the  year,  but  all  fairly  behaved  men  can  obtain  passes 
to  stay  out  till  midnight,  to  go  to  a  play  or  other  late 
amusement. 

Every  well-behaved  soldier  begins  to  draw  Id.  a  day 
extra  as  good-conduct  pay  when  he  has  been  two  years 
in  the  army.  For  every  year  that  he  serves  with  the 
colors  he  earns  £3,  which  is  given  to  him  in  a  lump  sum 
when  he  passes  into  the  reserve  at  the  end  of  seven  years' 
service,  or  whenever  he  is  sent  to  the  reserve  on  public 
grounds  before  that  period.  He  thus  takes  away  with 
him  into  civil  life  a  little  capital,  which  helps  him  to  es- 
tablish himself  in  some  business.  While  in  the  First 
Class  Army  Reserve  he  receives  Qd.  per  diem,  and  when 
the  full  term  of  twelve  years  for  which  he  enlisted  has 
expired,  if  he  be  a  good  soldier,  he  can  re-engage  in  the 
Supplemental  Reserves  for  four  years  more,  receiving  pay 
at  the  rate  of  -^d.  a  day.  Of  course  w^hile  in  either  of 
these  reserves  he  is  liable  to  be  recalled  to  the  colors 
at  any  moment  in  the  event  of  war. 

Those  who  are  allowed  to  re-engage  to  complete  twen- 
ty-one years'  army  service,  at  the  expiration  of  that  time 
receive  pensions,  the  lowest  of  which  is  1^.  per  diem.  H, 
wdien  discharged,  they  are  non-commissioned  officers,  they 
obtain  pensions  for  life  of  twice,  three,  and  even  four  times 
what  the  private  soldier  is  gi  ven.  No  man  can  now  become 
a  sergeant  unless  he  passes  a  good  educational  examination. 


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THE  nrKE  OF  MARLDOnOUGH  ON  THE  M(n«NING  OK  MALPLAQUET 


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THE   STANDING   AHMY    OF   GREAT   BRITAIN  85 

The  necessity  for  amusement  is  fully  recognized  in  our 
army,  and  regimental  oificers  do  a  great  deal  to  amuse 
and  make  their  men  happy.  A  love  of  cricket,  foot-ball, 
quoits,  and  all  other  manly  out-of-door  games  is  fostered 
in  every  corps,  and  the  oificers  join  freely  in  them  with 
their  men.  This  does  much  to  maintain  the  s:ood  feelinsr 
and  comradeship  between  officers  and  privates,  which  has 
always  been  strong  in  our  army.  I  am  sorry  to  say  that 
much  yet  remains  to  be  done  by  the  Government  in  the 
way  of  making  the  men's  barrack -rooms  more  habitable 
and  comfortable.  More  light  in  the  evenings  and  far  bet- 
ter fires  in  the  cold  weather  are  required.  We  cannot  ex- 
pect men  to  sit  night  after  night  in  their  present  cheerless, 
comfortless,  and  dreary  sleeping -rooms,  for  with  us  the 
soldier  has  his  meals  in  the  room  where  he  sleeps,  and 
where  he  is  also  supposed  to  sit  with  his  comrades  at 
night.  An  excellent  canteen,  and  a  recreation-room  are, 
however,  now  provided  in  almost  every  barrack.  They 
are  entirely  self-supporting  institutions,  and  all  profits 
earned  by  them  are  spent  for  the  benefit  of  the  soldier. 
In  fact,  these  institutions  are  very  much  like  ordinary 
clubs.  In  the  latter  the  soldier  can  have  good  extra 
meals,  and  in  the  former  plenty  of  beer  on  payment.  He 
has  bagatelle  and  billiard  tables ;  plenty  of  books  and 
newspapers  are  provided  for  his  amusement ;  and  in  many 
places  there  are  good  barrack  theatres  for  private  theatri- 
cals. Fives  courts,  skittle-alleys,  and  quoit -grounds  are 
also  to  be  found  in  most  barracks.  Altogether,  his  life  is 
by  no  means  a  bad  one,  and  he  has  enjoyments  and 
amusements  and  creature  comforts  unknown  to  his  broth- 
er in  civil  life. 

The  present  standing  army  may  be  said  to  date  from 
the  reign  of  King  Charles  II.,  although  some  few  of  the 
oldest  regiments  claim,  and  with  justice,  to  date  back  to 


86  THE  STANDING  ARMY   OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 

ihe  previous  century.  CromwelFs  army,  which  was  dis- 
banded at  the  Restoration,  was  certainly  the  best,  most 
disciphned,  most  sober,  and  most  highly  trained  army  we 
have  ever  had  in  England.  The  reason  for  this  is  easily 
understood.  Whereas  at  present  we  make  no  attempt  to 
compete  in  the  great  labor  market  for  others  than  the 
youngest  and  poorest  hewers  of  wood  and  drawers  of 
water,  Cromwell  paid  his  men  so  well  that  he  induced 
those  best  suited  for  a  soldier's  life  to  join  his  ranks. 

He  fixed  the  pay  of  the  private  soldier  of  the  remod- 
elled parliamentary  army  considerably  above  the  rates 
paid  them  for  ordinary  labor,  and  so  attracted  to  his 
ranks  a  class  of  men  morally  and  physically  superior  to 
those  who  have  since  then  composed  the  bulk  of  our 
army.  If  now  we  would  only  offer  as  pay  and  rations 
what  the  United  States  soldier  receives  we  should  obtain 
all  the  recruits  we  w^ant,  a  far  larger  number  of  eligible 
men  would  seek  to  enlist,  and  we  could  then  afford  to 
be  more  fastidious  and  particular  as  regards  the  health, 
strength,  moral  qualities,  and  social  position  of  those  we 
enlist.  Such  a  proposal  would,  of  course,  shock  the  regu- 
lar Treasury  official ;  but  I  verily  believe  it  would,  in  the 
long-run,  pay  the  nation  hand  over  hand  to  do  so.  x^ot 
only  would  such  a  system  provide  us  with  a  far  more 
efficient  army  than  any  we  have  had  since  CromwelFs 
time,  but  in  the  end  it  would  be  an  economical  plan.  We 
should  save  large  sums  in  both  our  hospitals  and  prisons. 
Fewer  men  would  be  annually  enlisted  with  such  w^eak 
constitutions  that  they  break  down  in  the  first  year's 
training,  or  are  sent  home  early  in  their  career  as  invalids 
from  foreign  stations,  to  fill  our  hospitals  and  increase  our 
pension  list.  We  should  have  far  fewer  men  in  prisons 
all  over  the  world,  for  we  would  enlist  no  suspicious  char- 
acters, and  a  bad  man  found  out  would  be  at  once  dis- 


THE   STANDING   ARMY   OF   GREAT  BRITAIN  87 

charo'otl.  The  annual  loss  from  these  causes  would  be  less, 
and  consequently  we  should  require  fewer  recruits  an- 
nualh'.  I  am  certain  it  would  pay  us  well  to  give  every 
soldier  at  home  and  abroad,  when  at  his  duty,  Qd.  a  day 
at  least  in  addition  to  his  present  pay,  and  to  make  his 
barracks  comfortable  by  lighting  and  heating  them  prop- 
erl}^  This  is  a  big  question,  but  it  is  one  which  well  de- 
serves the  serious  attention  of  the  people,  and  unless  they 
take  it  uj)  seriously,  no  ministry  is  ever  likely  to  do  so. 

The  charms  and  romance  of  a  soldier's  life,  the  variety 
of  scene  and  incident  which  army  service  affords  to  all 
ranks,  will  never  fail  to  attract  the  roving,  adventurous, 
and  ambitious  spirits  of  all  classes.  But  the  supply  from 
tliis  source  is  not  large  enough  or  sufficiently  constant 
during  peace  for  our  wants.  The  better  classes,  who  now 
only  enlist  in  small  numbers,  would  flock  to  the  arni}^  if 
we  could  protect  them  from  the  undesirable  associates  to 
be  met  with  in  all  barrack-rooms  under  our  present  sys- 
tem of  low  pay.  At  present  we  only  offer  boy's  w^ages, 
so,  as  a  rule,  we  only  obtain  boy  recruits.  It  ought  not 
to  require  much  genius  or  brains  to  understand  that  a 
standing  army  only  about  220,000  strong,  more  than  one- 
half  of  which  is  always  abroad,  cannot  be  in  a  healtliy  or 
effective  condition  that  has  to  absorb  annually  into  its 
ranks  between  30,000  and  40,000  young  lads,  and  that  has 
to  send  abroad  every  year  about  19,000  or  20,000  trained 
soldiers  to  maintain  the  corps  in  our  foreign  garrisons  at 
their  established  strength.  Our  best  officers  who  have 
most  studied  the  question  tell  us  that  the  army  at  its  pres- 
ent strength  cannot  effectively  fulfil  the  many  duties  im- 
posed upon  it  at  home  and  abroad. 

Under  our  present  short-service  system  we  require  an- 
nually from  about  25,000  to  40,000  recruits.  Of  those 
who  present  themselves  for  enlistment,  we  reject  for  vari- 


88  THE   STANDING   ARMY   OF   GREAT   BRITAIN 

ous  medical  reasons  from  about  50  to  55  per  cent.  If  we 
offered  the  British  soldier  the  same  pay  and  rations  that 
are  given  in  the  United  States  army,  the  number  of  desir- 
able young  men  anxious  to  enlist  would  be  so  much  larger 
than  at  present  that  we  could  afford  to  reject  a  larger 
percentage  than  we  do.  That  extra  percentage  of  rejec- 
tions would  cover  all  the  cases  of  doubtful  physique  which 
we  are  now  forced  to  accept  in  order  to  keep  our  ranks 
full.  The  physical  standard  for  our  recruits  is  higher 
than  for  any  other  European  army  ;  but  as  a  man's  age  is 
not  to  be  ascertained  by  his  teeth,  we  are  obliged  to  accept 
the  ages  stated  by  the  men  themselves.  We  are  supposed 
to  accept  only  those  between  the  ages  of  eighteen  and 
twenty-five,  and  in  order  to  protect  the  army  as  far  as  pos- 
sible against  youths  below  the  minimum  age,  we  have  laid 
down  what  we  assume  to  be  its  fair  physical  equivalents. 
If  the  recruit  possesses  them,  he  is  accepted ;  but,  as  might 
be  expected,  we  are  often  taken  in  by  youths  under  that 
minimum  age. 

To  somewhat  alleviate  the  evils  attendant  upon  this  un- 
fortjinate  system  of  boy  recruits,  Parhament,  I  rejoice  to 
say,  has  forbidden  any  to  be  sent  to  India  who,  if  under 
twenty  years  of  age,  have  not  been  one  year  in  the  army. 
Had  Parliament  gone  thoroughly  into  the  matter  it  would, 
I  think,  have  fixed  that  period  at  two  years  instead  of 
one.  Putting  aside  altogether  the  inhumanity  of  sending 
immature  lads  to  India  and  other  tropical  climates,  com- 
mon-sense tells  us  how  much  wiser  and  more  economical 
it  would  be  to  send  there  none  but  trained  men  soldiers. 
To  do  this  would  require  an  addition  to  the  army  estab- 
lishments at  home ;  an  increase  which  sooner  or  later  we 
must  have  for  defensive  purposes  if  our  coaling  stations 
abroad,  and  our  coasts  at  home  are  to  be  rendered  secure. 

We  pride  ourselves  upon  being  a  practical,  business-like 


t- 


THE   STANDING   AR]MY   OF  GREAT   BRITAIN  91 

people,  ami  so  we  are  in  our  private  concerns ;  but  as  a 
government  we  are  often  short-sighted  and  penny -wise 
and  pound-foolish  about  the  army.  The  present  adminis- 
tration has  done  much  to  supply  our  military  shortcom- 
ings, but  much  still  remains  to  be  done.  Until  pubhc 
opinion  forces  us  to  keep  the  army  sufficiently  strong  to 
enable  it  to  properly  discharge  the  duties  imposed  upon 
it  with  due  regard  to  the  health  of  the  men,  and  until  we 
deal  with  our  soldiers  on  the  business  principles  on  which 
the  United  States  treat  theirs  as  to  food  and  pay,  short  of 
resorting  to  some  form  or  other  of  compulsory  service,  it 
is  impossible  that  it  can  ever  be  as  efficient  and  as  useful 
as  it  ought  to  be.  At  present  we  are  like  the  "  jerry  " 
builders  who  use  poor  materials — soft  deals,  for  example, 
where  there  should  be  seasoned  oak.  The  officers  must, 
however,  do  the  best  they  can  with  the  raw  material  sup- 
plied them  by  the  State  ;  that  it  is  not  as  good  as  it  should 
be,  and  that  they  are  not  permitted  to  keep  it  longer  to 
season  m  England,  is  not  their  fault.  They  do  their  best 
to  let  the  people  know  the  truth ;  they  cannot  do  more. 

Because  our  army  is  so  small  for  the  amount  of  work  it 
has  to  do  all  over  the  world,  it  should  be  composed  of 
first-class  materials  only.  It  should  have  the  best  men  as 
soldiers,  and  the  best  arms  and  equipment  that  money 
can  purchase.  There  may  be  two  opmions  as  to  what  its 
numbers  should  be,  but  there  is  no  one  silly  enough  to  say 
we  should  be  content  with  boys  instead  of  men ;  with  ob- 
solete guns  and  rifles  in  place  of  the  best  modern  weapons. 
If  the  army  were  governed  upon  a  purely  military  system, 
upon  common  business  principles,  it  would  soon  be  for  its 
numbers  the  finest  in  Europe,  which  it  certainly  is  not  at 
present,  and  the  gain  to  the  nation  would  be  incalculable. 

Thanks  to  the  enlightened  views  on  army  matters  enter- 
tained by  the  late  Prince  Consort,  the  army  was  provided 


92  THE   STANDING  ARMY   OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 

with  a  rifle  musket  in  1854.  "We  were  thus  well  ahead  of 
the  French,  Russians,  Turkish,  and  Sardinian  armies  in 
the  Crimea.  At  present  we  have  in  use  the  Martini-Henry 
rifle,  an  excellent  arm,  but  now  being  replaced  by  a  supe- 
rior magazine  weapon.  The  new  arm  is  of  0.303-inch 
calibre,  and  is  believed  to  be  equal  to  all  and  superior  to 
most  of  the  magazine  arms  now  being  adopted  by  other 
European  nations. 

The  armament  of  our  field  artillery  still  leaves  much  to 
be  desired.  If  we  mobilized  now  for  the  defence  of  the 
kingdom,  the  Volunteer  field  artillery  would  turn  out  with 
guns  of  three  calibres,  some  loading  at  the  breech,  others 
at  the  muzzle,  and  all  different  from  the  guns  of  the 
standing  army.  This  is  and  has  long  been  our  condition, 
althouo'h  the  most  ignorant  soldier  is  well  aware  of  how 
pregnant  with  disaster  in  battle  such  a  condition  of  things 
nmst  be. 

I  leave  all  experienced  soldiers  to  estimate  the  confu- 
sion, possibly  ending  in  disaster,  which  this  medley  of 
breech-loaders  and  muzzle-loaders  of  many  different  cali- 
bres would  entail  had  Ave  now  to  mobilize  all  our  military 
forces  to  fight  for  our  national  existence. 

The  command  of  the  army  is  vested  in  a  general  officer. 
He  is  controlled  in  all  his  actions  outside  the  military 
training  of  the  troops  by  the  Secretary  of  State  for  war. 
He  may  point  out  that  the  forts  for  the  protection  of  our 
ports  and  arsenals  and  dock-yards  are  badly  and  insuffi- 
ciently armed,  and  that  the  garrisons  of  our  foreign  for- 
tresses— without  the  aid  of  which  our  fleets  could  not  in 
these  days  of  steam  keep  the  seas — are  dangerously  small. 
But  not  only  has  he  no  power  to  correct  all  this,  Ijut  his 
opinions  on  these  subjects  of  life  and  death  consequence 
to  the  empire  are  not  made  known  to  the  people.  In  fact, 
the  British  nation  has  no  recognized  means  of  ascertaining 


THE    NEW    TWELVE-POUNDEU    BREECH-LOADING    FIELD    GUN 


what  its  best  soldiers  and  sailors  think  of  the  strength 
and  state  of  the  army  and  navy.  It  is  content  to  take  the 
opinion  of  whosoever  may  be  the  two  civilian  ministers 
whom  the  accidents  and  exigencies  of  the  party  govern- 
ment have  for  the  nonce  made  responsible  for  those  two 
great  services. 

Our  system  of  military  administration  has  been  growino; 
more  and  more  civilian  in  character  since  the  days  of 
Wellington.  Then,  the  Commander-in-chief  had  far  more 
power  and  influence  in  the  decision  of  military  questions 
than  at  present.  Then,  the  supply  of  guns,  arms,  ammuni- 
tion, and  of  all  sorts  of  military  materials  was  in  the  hands 
of  an  officer  selected  on  account  of  great  experience  in 
war.  He  was  styled  the  Master-general  of  the  Ordnance. 
He  was  a  member  of  the  Government,  and  often  a  cabinet 
minister.  He  was,  in  fact,  the  adviser  of  the  Government 
on  all  military  matters.     That  office  was  abolished,  and  at 


94  THE   STANDING  AKMY   OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 

present  all  this  duty  of  supply,  which  requires  great  tech- 
nical training  and  military  experience,  is  relegated  to  a 
civilian  member  of  Parliament.  Soldiers  don't  think  the 
arrangement  a  good  one. 

Our  army  has  far  greater  practice  in  war  than  that  of 
any  other  nation.  At  this  moment  we  may  be  said  to 
have  three  little  wars  on  hand,  besides  having  a  number 
of  officers  engaged  in  the  defence  of  Suakin,  which  is  be- 
sieged by  the  Arabs.*  If  there  were  a  temple  of  Janns  in 
England,  it  Avould  seldom  be  closed,  and  never  for  long. 
While  the  armies  of  other  European  powers  can  only  gain 
annually  some  insight  into  war  with  the  blank  ammunition 
fired  during  autumn  manoeuvres,  Queen  Victoria's  soldiers 
learn  their  lesson  with  ball-cartridge  fired  in  real  warfare, 
and  with  almost  annually  recurring  regularity.  It  is  the 
varied  experience,  and  frequent  practice  in  war,  provided 
for  our  officers  by  the  nature  of  our  wide-extending  em- 
pire, which  makes  them  what  I  believe  them  to  be — the 
best  in  the  world.  A  far  larger  proportion  of  them  know 
the  sensation  of  being  under  fire  than  those  of  any  other 
army.  Other  things  besides  this  frequent  practice  of  war 
also  contribute  to  make  the  English  officer  what  he  is. 
He  belongs  to  the  class  which  has  at  all  times  been  the 
backbone  of  the  nation.  As  an  English  gentleman,  he  is 
by  birth  what  we  believe  to  be  the  representative  of  all 
that  is  noblest,  most  manly,  brave,  and  honorable  in  hu- 
man nature.  His  innate  love  of  sport  in  every  form  drives 
him  to  the  remotest  corners  of  the  earth.  You  will  find 
him  climbing  Alpine  mountains,  crossing  Swiss  glaciers, 
tiger  shooting  in  Bengal,  hunting  lions  in  equatorial  Afri- 
ca, or  other  big  game  amid  the  snows  of  Thibet.  To 
ride  well  to  hounds  is  one  of  his  cherished  ambitions,  and, 

*  Tliis  was  written  iu  1888-89. 


THE   STxVNDING   ARMY   OF   GREAT  BRITAIN  95 

as  a  matter  of  course,  he  loves  cricket,  polo,  and  all  manly 
out-of-door  games.  All  these  experiences  train  him  to  a 
self-reliance  unknown  to  the  men  of  other  nations.  In 
fact,  the  British  officer  is  by  birth  and  education  the  nat- 
ural leader  of  the  British  private,  who  has  the  same  sport- 
loving  instincts.  The  officer  of  to-day  is  a  far  better  sol- 
dier in  every  way  than  his  predecessors  of  thirty  or  forty 
years  ago.  In  future  it  is  intended  onl}?^  to  accept  men  as 
officers  on  probation.  The  period  of  this  probation  is  to 
be  three  years,  and  if  at  the  expiration  of  that  period,  or 
at  any  time  within  it,  the  young  officer  be  found  wanting 
in  zeal,  energy,  ability,  tact,  or  character,  he  will  be  ruth- 
lessly discharged.  The  nation  cannot  afford  to  pay  useless 
officers,  and,  above  all  things,  it  must  not  allow  them  to 
be  intrusted  with  the  lives  of  gallant  soldiers. 

There  are  and  long  have  been  two  distinct  schools  of 
thought  in  our  array.  One  of  pure  and  simple  conserva- 
tism, whose  articles  of  faith  are  based  upon  the  fact  that 
our  army  under  Wellington  overthrew,  time  after  time, 
the  finest  armies  of  France.  This  school  flourishes  almost 
exclusively  among  our  older  officers.  The  other,  the 
3'oung  school,  wishes  to  make  the  army  a  profession,  and 
has  "  progress"  for  its  motto.  The  men  of  the  new  school 
wish  to  see  ever}^  encouragement  given  in  the  adoption  of 
new  ideas,  while  all  that  is  best  in  the  sentiment  and  tra- 
dition of  our  old  army  is  retained.  They  wish  to  see  the 
able  and  hard-working  officer  selected  for  promotion,  and 
the  stupid  and  lazy  passed  over.  This  is  the  system  we 
have  long  followed  in  making  our  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers, and  it  answers  admirably.  The  young  school  Avant 
to  know  why  it  is  not  followed  in  the  promotion  of  offi- 
cers ^  The  system  of  cold  seniority  kills  all  emulation, 
and  is  a  serious  bar  to  all  efficiency.  The  young  school 
want  to  have  the  army  ruled  and  administered  upon  sound 


90  THE   STANDING  ARMY    OF  GREAT  BRITAIN 

and  simple  business  principles.  Our  ancestors  gave  up  the 
long-bow  when  it  grew  out  of  date,  and  we  have  in  this 
century  given  up  the  use  of  the  flint  musket,  with  which  so 
much  of  our  military  glory  was  associated.  We  now  begin 
to  recognize  that  all  our  old-fashioned  stiff  dress  and  formal 
drill  would  be  as  much  out  of  place  on  the  field  of  battle 
of  to-day  as  the  cross-bow  would  have  been  at  Waterloo. 
We  see  that  it  is  now  necessary  to  train  the  arm}^  for  war 
instead  of,  as  heretofore,  drilling  it  for  parade.  We  have 
at  last  awoke  to  the  conviction  that  we  must  cease  to  train 
our  men  for  a  condition  of  warfare  that  we  can  never  see 
again,  for  war  will  not  conform  its  procedure  to  the  pict- 
uresque notions  we  had  formed  of  it  from  field-days  and 
from  the  pages  of  Napier.  We  must  closely  study  in  the 
history  of  recent  wars  what  battles  now  are  really  like, 
how  they  are  conducted,  how  they  are  lost  and  won,  and 
train  our  soldiers  for  those  new  conditions. 

Armies  to  be  efficient  must  not  stand  still,  and  ours, 
which  is  so  very  small,  and  has  such  wide  extending  duties 
to  perform,  can  least  afford  to  do  so. 


THE  GERMAN  ARMY  OF  TO-DAY 


WjriVEltSITTj 


I.— MILITARY   CONSTITUTION  OF   THE  GERMAN  EMPIRE 

AFTEK  the  close  of  the  war  of  1870-71,  from  which 
-  Germany  came  forth  as  a  national  unity,  it  was  de- 
sired that  visible  expression  should  be  given  to  the  latter 
by  a  uniform  organization  of  the  German  military  forces. 
The  necessary  provisions  have  been  embodied  in  the  Im- 
perial Constitution  of  April  1(3,  1871. 

Its  first  article  provides  that  all  German  States  shall 
constitute  a  federal  territory  under  the  name  of  the 
"  German  Empire,"  over  which  the  King  of  Prussia  pre- 
sides as  "  German  Emperor."  The  Emperor  has  the  pow- 
er, in  the  name  of  the  empire,  to  declare  war  and  to  con- 
clude peace ;  a  declaration  of  war,  however,  being  subject 
to  the  consent  of  the  Federal  Council,  composed  of  rep- 
resentatives of  the  members  of  the  federation,  except  in 
case  of  an  invasion  of  the  territory  of  the  federation  or 
its  coasts. 

The  entire  land  forces  of  the  empire  form  a  union  army 
under  the  command,  in  war  and  in  peace,  of  the  Emperor, 
who  has  the  power  and  whose  duty  it  is  to  see  to  it  that 
every  part  of  the  army  is  complete  in  numbers  and  in 
fighting  trim,  and  that  uniformity  is  established  and  pre- 
served as  to  organization  and  formation,  armament  and 
equipment.  The  Emperor  also  regulates,  by  way  of  impe- 
rial legislation,  the  active  strength,  formation,  and  dis- 
tribution of  the  several  contingents  composing  the  impe- 
rial armv. 


lOU  THE   GERMAN  ARMY   OF  TO-DAY 

In  conformity  ^Yitll  the  treaty  of  federation  of  Novem- 
ber 23,  1870,  the  above-cited  provisions  do  not  apply  to 
Bavaria,  the  Bavarian  troops,  however,  being  pledged  to 
render  in  Avar-time  unconditional  obedience  to  the  orders 
of  the  commander-in-chief  of  the  federation.  The  Bava- 
rian army,  therefore,  forms  a  distinctive  contingent  of  the 
imperial  army,  with  an  entirely  independent  administra- 
tion. AVhile  her  army  budget  is  not  submitted  to  the 
consideration  of  the  Reichstag,  Bavaria  has  pledged  her- 
self to  expend  for  her  army  the  same  amount  propor- 
tionally as  is  jper  capita  appropriated  by  federal  legisla- 
tion for  the  remainder  of  the  federal  army.  Begarding 
formation,  strength,  armament,  and  equipment,  the  Ba- 
varian army  corps  are  perfectly  assimilated  to  the  other 
army  corps. 

Unless  otherwise  provided  by  distinctive  conventions, 
the  reigning  princes  of  the  federation  appoint  the  officers, 
and  are  themselves  the  chiefs  of  the  military  contingents 
belonging  to  their  own  territories. 

The  military  relations  of  the  several  States  are  regulated 
by  distinctive  conventions.  While  Saxony  and  Wiirtem- 
berg  put  up  an  army  corps  each  for  herself,  the  other  con- 
tingents are  amalgamated  with  the  Prussian  army. 

All  expenses  for  army  purposes  are  included  in  the 
budget  for  the  maintenance  of  the  emjjire,  and  any 
savings  made  on  army  appropriations  do  not  revert  to 
the  different  States,  but  invariably  to  the  imperial  treas- 
ury. 

While  the  most  important  provisions  of  the  Military 
Constitution  are  thus  contained  in  the  Constitution  of  the 
Empire,  additional  provisions,  such  as  to  the  strength  in 
peace-time  —  that  is,  the  number  of  men  actually  kept 
under  arms  and  forming  the  peace  army,  their  organiza- 
tion and  completion,  discharge  from  service,  and  service 


THE  gp:rman  army  of  to-day  loi 

relations  of  those  absent  on  furlough — are  contained  in 
the  military  law  of  the  empire  of  May  2,  1874,  which  has 
been  repeatedly  amended  in  the  course  of  time.  By  its 
original  provisions  the  peace  strength  was  placed,  up  to 
December  31,  1881,  at  401,059  non-commissioned  officers 
and  men  (not  including  officers  and  one-year  volunteers) ; 
this  number  was  increased,  after  April  1,  1881,  to  427,274 ; 
after  April  1,  1887,  to  468,409 ;  and  after  October  1, 1891, 
to  486,983  men.  Adding  to  these  22,000  officers,  surgeons, 
and  bureau  officials,  and  also  7000  one-year  volunteers,  we 
have  a  total  strength  of  516,000,  which  is  still  30,000  less 
than  the  force  which  the  French  Kepublic  deems  abso- 
lutely necessary  to  keep  constantly  under  arms. 

In  reference  to  distribution  and  organization  of  the  im- 
perial army,  the  amendment  to  the  military  law  of  the 
empire,  passed  January  27,  1890,  provides  that  an  army 
corps  shall  be  formed  of  two  or  three  (Hvisions,  with  the 
corresponding  artillery,  pioneer,  and  train  formations,  and 
that  the  entire  land  forces  of  the  German  Empire  shall 
consist  of  twenty  army  corps,  of  which  Bavaria  furnishes 
two,  Wiirtemberg  and  Saxony  one  each,  while  Prussia, 
together  with  the  remaining  States,  puts  up  sixteen  army 
corps.  For  military  purposes  the  territory  of  the  empire 
is  divided  into  nineteeen  corps  districts  {Bezirke),  the 
Prussian  guard  corps  recruiting  throughout  the  whole 
Kingdom  of  Prussia. 

A  comparison  of  the  peace  strengths  of  the  armies  of 
the  Continental  powers  of  Europe  shows  that  Germanj^ 
stands  but  third  on  the  list,  and  keeps  a  smaller  number 
of  men  under  arms  than  either  Russia  or  France,  while  it 
has  a  stronger  peace  army  than  Austro-Hungary  or  Italy. 
The  number  of  troops  kept  in  active  service  by  the  above- 
named  powers  in  time  of  peace  is  shown  by  the  following 
exhibit,  giving  the  different  figures  for  October  1,  1890 : 


102 


THE    GERMAN  ARMY   OF  TO-DAY 


Russia 

France 

Germany. .    .. . . 

Austro-Hungary 
Italy 


Battalions 
Infantry. 

Squadrons 
Cavalry. 

Field 
Batteries. 

1029 

687 

405 

561 

420 

480 

538 

465 

434 

458 

252 

241 

346 

144 

207 

II.— LIABILITY   TO   SERVICE 

Every  German  is  liable  to  service,  and  in  the  perform- 
ance of  this  duty  no  substitute  is  allowed.  By  adhering 
to  this  principle,  which  has  sprung  up  in  Prussia  under 
the  necessities  of  a  grave  time,  but  was  accompanied  by 
brilliant  success,  a  people's  army  has  been  created  in  the 
truest  acceptation  of  the  term.  Exempt  from  compulsory 
service  are  only  the  members  of  the  reigning  or  formerly 
sovereign  houses,  to  whom  this  exemption  has  been  se- 
cured by  distinctive  treaties,  who,  however,  without  ex- 
ception, deem  it  proper  to  enter  the  army. 

The  liability  to  service  commences  with  the  completion 
of  the  ITth  year,  and  ends  with  the  45th  year  of  a  man's 
life.  The  time  is  divided  between  service  in  the  ranks  and 
in  the  defence  of  the  country  (Landsturm).  During  his 
liability  to  service  every  German  has  to  serve  in  the  ranks, 
generally  from  the  20th  year  of  his  life  up  to  the  31st  of 
March  of  that  calendar  year  in  which  he  attains  the  age 
of  39.  This  period  is  subdivided  into  active  service  in  the 
ranks,  the  Landwehr,  and  the  Ersatz  reserve.  All  liable 
to  service,  but  not  enrolled  for  active  duty  in  the  ranks, 
are  subject  to  Landsturm  duty.  Unqualified  for  duty  are 
those  not  capable  of  bearing  arms  or  undergoing  the  hard- 
ships connected  with  the  military  profession  ;  all  criminals, 
are  excluded  from  the  honor  of  belonging  to  the  army. 


GENERAL    AND    STAFF    OFFICER 


During  the  time  a  man  belongs  to  the  army  he  serves 
3  years  in  the  ranks,  4  in  the  reserve,  then  he  belongs  for 
5  years  to  the  first  levy  of  the  Landwehr,  up  to  his  39th 
year  to  the  second  levy  of  the  Landwehr,  and,  finally,  up 
to  his  45th  year  to  the  Landsturm.  The  time  of  active 
service  in  the  ranks  is  reduced  to  one  year  in  the  case  of 
young  men  of  education  and  means,  who  bear  all  ex- 
penses of  clothing,  equipment,  and  support,  and  pass  a 
certain  examination;  also  in  the  case  of  graduates  from 
teachers'  seminaries,  who,  in  the  interest  of  public  educa- 
tion, may  be  allowed  to  pass  into  the  reserve  after  a  short 
instruction  in  the  usage  of  arms,  generally  confined  to  a 
period  of  only  six  weeks. 


104  THE  GERMAN  ARMY   OF   TO-DAY 

Not  all  the  men,  however,  enrolled  for  three  years'  ac- 
tive army  service  are  kept  continually  under  arms  for  this 
whole  period.  As  the  strength  of  any  troop  must  under 
no  circumstance  be  exceeded,  and  the  number  of  recruits 
is  generally  larger  than  the  number  of  men  whose  regular 
term  expires,  a  select  number  of  such  men  as  excel  in  con- 
duct and  training  receive  their  discharge  in  the  second 
year  at  the  close  of  the  fall  manoeuvres,  and  are  placed  at 
the  disposal  of  their  troop. 

The  Ersatz  reserve  is  made  up  of  such  as  have  not  been 
enlisted,  either  because  of  being  above  the  required  num- 
ber of  men,  or  of  having  been  found  only  conditionall}^ 
fit,  owing  to  some  physical  infirmity.  The  term  of  service 
in  the  Ersatz  reserve  is  12  years,  after  which  these  men 
are  subject  to  Landsturm  duty  up  to  their  4r)tli  year. 
They  may  be  called  out  in  case  of  mobilization,  or  in 
order  to  fill  up  the  army,  and  for  the  formation  of  depot 
troops  (Ersatz  Truppen).  The  duty  of  the  Landsturm, 
finally,  is  to  take  part  in  the  defence  of  the  country.  The 
Landsturm  is  called  out  by  imperial  order. 

Voluntary  entry  into  the  army  is  permitted  at  the  age 
of  17  years ;  these  young  men  have  the  privilege  of  choos- 
ing their  own  garrison  and  troop.  Some  regiments  recruit 
chiefly  from  such  volunteers,  as,  for  instance,  the  Ziethen 
Hussars. 

The  number  of  recruits  to  be  raised  every  year  is  deter- 
mined by  the  Emperor,  according  to  the  demands  made  by 
the  different  parts  of  the  army,  and  this  number  is  appor- 
tioned among  the  several  States  of  the  Federation  in  pro- 
portion to  their  population.  Recruits  are  generally  en- 
rolled in  the  same  army  corps  district  in  which  they  are 
raised.  An  exception  from  this  rule  is  made  in  the  case 
of  the  Prussian  guard  corps,  which  is  recruited  through- 
out all  Prussian  provinces  and  Alsace-Lorraine,  and  to 


THE   GERMAN  ARMY   OF   TO-DAY  105 

which  are  assigned  recruits  of  superior  personal  appear- 
ance and  behavior.  The  recruits  raised  in  Alsace-Lorraine 
are  at  present  assigned  to  Prussian  regiments. 

The  entire  forces  of  the  reserve,  Ersatz  reserve  and 
Landwehr,  continue  beyond  the  term  of  their  active  service 
to  be  subject  to  the  control  of  their  respective  district  com- 
manders, so  that  the  abode,  occupation,  and  number  of 
men  on  leave  residing  in  any  one  district  can  be  ascer- 
tained at  any  thne.  The  reservists  have  to  take  part  in 
two  field  exercises  of  8  weeks'  duration  each ;  the  Land- 
Avehr  men  of  the  first  levy  in  two  of  2  weeks'  duration 
each.  Neither  the  Landwehr  of  the  second  levy  nor  the 
Landsturm  is  called  out  in  times  of  peace.  Those  assigned 
to  the  Ersatz  reserve  have  to  participate  in  three  exercises 
covering  together  a  period  of  20  weeks. 

The  institution  of  the  one -year  volunteers,  originally 
introduced  in  Prussia,  and  afterwards  adopted  by  all  large 
armies  of  the  Continent,  requires  some  remarks  explana- 
tory of  its  importance  and  peculiarity.  The  reduction  in 
the  active  army  service  from  three  years  to  one  implies 
unquestionably  a  privilege  for  certain  classes  of  the  popu- 
lation which  is  not  otherwise  recognized  in  the  organiza- 
tion  of  the  German  army;  yet  it  is  just  as  unquestionably 
in  the  interest  of  the  people  that  the  studies  of  those 
striving  for  a  higher  standard  of  learning  in  the  profes- 
sional branches  should  not  be  interrupted  by  a  full  term 
of  three  years. 

A  voung  man  mav  be  enlisted  as  one-vear  volunteer 
either  upon  passing  a  scientific  examination,  or  by  pro- 
ducing a  certificate  of  maturity  issued  by  one  of  the  spe- 
ciallv  authorized  educational  institutions  attesting  his 
qualification  for  one  of  the  upper  classes  of  a  high  school 
or  college.  The  one-year  service  may  be  rendered  in  the 
ranks  of  any  troop  of  the  choice  of  the  volunteer,  or 


106 


THE  GERMAN  ARMY  OF  TO-DAY 


among  the  pharmacists  of  the  sanitary  corps.  Medical 
students  desiring  to  enter  the  sanitary  corps  have  to  serve 
six  months  under  arms,  and  after  their  graduation  six 
months  more  in  the  capacity  as  non-commissioned  or  un- 
der-surgeon.  Having  afterwards  been  elected  military 
surgeons,  they  may  be  passed  into  the  reserve.  All  other 
one-year  volunteers,  so  far  as  they  are  qualified  by  gen- 
eral education,  military  ability,  and  zeal,  are  trained  for 
the  rank  of  oiRcers  of  the  reserve  or  Landwehr.     They 


J  ACER 


THE  GERMAN   ARMY   OF   TO-DAY  107 

receive,  accordingly,  jiarticiilarly  careful  instruction,  both 
theoretical  and  practical,  and  at  the  close  of  their  term  of 
service,  and  upon  passing  the  officers'  examination,  they 
are  assigned  to  the  reserve  as  reserve  officer  aspirants. 
As  such  they  have  to  render  active  service  in  two  exer- 
cises of  8  weeks'  duration  each,  for  the  purpose  of  further 
training  for  the  rank  of  officer.  The  appointment  to  this 
rank  depends,  firstly,  upon  the  civic  occupation  of  the  ap- 
plicant, which  must  command  a  respect  corresponding  to 
that  due  the  rank  of  an  officer ;  secondly,  upon  an  election 
by  his  comrades. 

The  expenses  connected  with  the  service  of  one -year 
volunteers  are  by  no  means  inconsiderable,  and  may  be 
estimated  at  1500  marks  in  the  infantry,  and  from  1600 
to  2000  marks  in  the  cavalry  and  field  artillery,  as  service 
in  the  latter  arms  requires  extra  contributions  for  the  use 
and  maintenance  of  the  troop  horses.  In  exceptional 
cases,  and  on  proof  of  indigency,  a  few  one-year  volun- 
teers may  be  supported  at  public  expense,  and  allowed  to 
lodge  in  the  barracks. 

III.— COMPOSITION  OF  THE  ARMY 

A.— THE   WAR  MINISTRY 

The  executive  organs  of  the  administration  of  the  armv 
are  the  War  Ministries  at  Berlin,  Munich,  Dresden,  and 
Stuttgart,  for  the  Prussian,  Bavarian,  Saxon,  and  Wilr- 
temberg  contingents,  headed  each  by  a  general  officer  of 
superior  rank  as  War  Minister.  The  War  Ministries  reg- 
ulate and  conduct  all  affairs  regarding  the  completion, 
maintenance,  armament,  and  administration  of  the  mili- 
tary forces  and  war  materials.  There  is  no  War  Ministr}'" 
of  the  empire,  all  orders  of  the  Emperor,  as  well  as  newly 
prepared  or  altered  regulations,  being  conveyed  through 


108  THE  GERMAN   ARMY   OF  TO-DAY 

the  Prussian  War  Ministry  to  the  War  Ministries  of  the 
other  States,  by  which  they  have  to  be  put  in  force  in 
their  armies.  The  Prussian  War  Ministry  at  Berhn,  hav- 
ing a  2>crsonnel  of  390  officers  and  officials  of  every  rank 
(in  the  French  War  Ministry  more  tlian  800  officei's  and 
ofiicials  are  employed),  is,  therefore,  the  centre  from  which 
issue  all  measures  of  organization  and  administration.  Its 
work  is  divided  among  the  Central  Departments;  the  Gen- 
eral War  Department,  comprising  the  army,  fortification, 
and  foot  and  horse  divisions ;  the  departments  for  finan- 
cial management,  invalids,  and  armament,  and  the  supply 
and  medical  divisions. 

Besides,  there  are  a  number  of  other  boards  and  insti- 
tutions under  immediate  orders  of  the  War  Minister,  who 
has  also  to  represent  the  army  in  the  Reichstag. 

B. — THE  MILITARY   CABINET 

In  Prussia  all  affairs  relating  to  the  jpersonnel  of  officers 
and  military  officials  are  attended  to  by  the  Military  Cab- 
inet, which  is  placed  directly  under  the  Emperor,  and 
forms  a  distinctive  division  of  the  War  Department.  Its 
chief  is  the  Adjutant-general  of  the  Emperor  and  King ; 
he  has  to  submit  to  the  decision  of  the  supreme  command- 
er all  matters  relating  to  appointments,  promotion,  and 
discharge  of  officers,  also  applications  for  pardon  made  by 
military  persons. 

C. — THE  COMMISSION  FOR  THE  DEFENCE  OF  THE  COUNTRY 

This  commission  has  to  examine  into  and  consider  all 
questions  touching  the  erection,  completion,  or  abandon- 
ment of  forts,  as  also  more  important  questions  of  organi- 
zation and  training.  It  receives  its  orders  from  and  re- 
ports to  the  Emperor  directly.  After  his  retirement  from 
the  position  of  Chief  of  the  General  Staff,  General  Field- 


THE  GERMAN  ARMY"  OP  TO-DAY        m 

marshal  Count  von  Moltke  was  placed  at  the  head  of  this 
commission.  His  successor  is  General  Field  -  marshal 
Prince  Albrecht  of  Prussia,  Pegent  of  the  Duchy  of 
Brunswick. 

D.— THE  GENERAL  STAFF 

The  Chief  of  the  General  Staff  of  the  Prussian  Army 
occupies  an  independent  position,  co-ordinate  to  the  "War 
Minister,  and  responsible  for  the  conduct  of  his  office  to 
the  Emperor  directly.  He  is  assisted  by  three  quarter- 
masters-general, Avho,  in  case  of  war,  are  appointed  chiefs 
of  the  general  staffs  of  the  chief  commanders  of  armies. 
There  is  no  exclusive  corps  of  general  staff  officers,  these 
being  selected  from  the  standing  army,  into  which  they 
return  after  a  number  of  years'  service  on  the  general 
staff. 

In  the  field  the  general  staff  has  to  attend  to  all  mat- 
ters touching  the  movement,  quartering,  and  engagement 
of  troops,  and  to  the  drawing  up  of  orders.  The  officers 
of  the  general  staff  are  the  assistants  of  the  generals  com- 
manding to  whom  they  are  assigned.  They  must  be  pos- 
sessed, besides  clearness  of  thought  and  perspicuity  of  ex- 
pression, of  the  gift  of  quick  conception,  of  indefatigable 
working  faculties,  and  of  a  high  degree  of  military  train- 
ing. Their  duties  are  extensive  and  arduous,  but  of  a 
thankful  character. 

In  peace  the  majority  of  general  staff  officers  are  en- 
gaged at  work  at  the  Great  General  Staff  of  the  army 
at  Berlin,  which  is  divided  into  a  department  of  military 
history,  four  departments  for  the  study  of  foreign  armies 
and  seats  of  war,  and  the  railway  division.  On  the  last 
devolves  the  disposition  of  all  matters  relating  to  the  use 
of  railways  by  military  forces.  The  remainder  of  the 
general  staff  officers  are  detailed  to  the  army  corps  and 


112  THE   GERMAN  ARMY   OF  TO-DAY 

divisions.  A  special  branch  of  the  Great  General  Staff  is 
serving  purely  scientific  jrarposes.  Under  the  immediate 
supervision  of  the  Chief  of  the  Great  General  Staff  are 
placed  the  Railway  Brigade,  the  survey  of  the  empire — 
comprising  the  trigonometrical,  topographical,  and  carto- 
graphical divisions  —  and  the  AVar  Academy  at  Berlin. 
Into  the  last,  officers  especially  recommended  for  ability 
and  zeal  are  admitted  after  passing  an  appropriate  exami- 
nation. During  a  course  lasting  three  years  they  receive 
a  careful  trainmg  in  the  military  and  auxiliary  sciences, 
which  qualilies  them  afterwards  for  appointment  on  the 
general  staff  as  aides-de-camp  or  teachers.  The  attend- 
ance at  this  academy  is,  however,  not  an  indispensable 
condition  for  admission  to  the  general  staff.  The  number 
of  officers  detailed  to  the  latter  is  about  300. 

Bavaria  has  her  own  military  academy  at  Munich ; 
Saxon  and  "Wiirtemberg  officers  participate  in  the  course 
of  the  Prussian  academy. 

The  Chief  of  the  Great  General  Staff  of  the  army  is 
General  Count  von  Schlieffen,  who  in  February,  1891,  suc- 
ceeded Count  von  Waldersee,  who  had,  in  1888,  been  pro- 
moted to  this  eminent  position  as  successor  of  General 
Field  -  marshal  Count  von  Moltke,  to  whose  genius  the 
army  owes  the  splendid  organization  of  this  training- 
school  for  superior  army  officers. 


E. — THE   MILITARY  INTENDANCIES 

Upon  the  military  intendancies  devolves  the  duty  of 
regulating  all  matters  relating  to  the  maintenance,  pay- 
ment, and  quartering  of  the  troops.  In  war  they  have  also 
to  provide  for  food,  either  through  organized  conveyance 
from  home,  or  by  off-hand  purchases,  or,  in  case  of  neces- 
sity, by  requisition. 


UHLANS 


^^>-  Of  -rap.      -^ 

•tJinVEESITT] 


THE  GERMAN  ARMY   OF  TO-DAY 


115 


p. — DISTRIBUTION   OP   THE   IMPERIAL  ARMY 

The  army  of  the  German  Empire  consists,  as  mentioned 
before,  since  April  1,  1890,  of  20  army  corps.  "With  a  few 
exceptions,  the  troops  of  an  army  corps  are  garrisoned 
within  the  army  corjjs  district,  and  complete  themselves 
from  the  latter.  The  Prussian  guard  corps  has  no  corps 
district  of  its  own,  and  is  recruited  generally  throughout 
the  monarchy.  The  army  corps  in  Alsace-Lorraine  re- 
ceive their  complement  chiefl}"  from  other  sections  of 
the  empire,  while  the  recruits  raised  there  are  distributed 
among  regiments  of  other  corps  districts.  With  the  ex- 
ception of  the  guard  and  the  two  Bavarian  army  corps, 
all  other  army  corps  are  known  by  continuous  numbers 
from  1  to  IT.  Their  principal  forces  are  stationed  and 
headquarters  located  as  follows : 


GUARD   CORPS  (BERLIN)   AT   BERLIN   AND   SURROUNDING  TOWNS 

1.  Army  Corps  (Konigsberg)  East  Prussia. 

2.  "  "  (Stettin)  Pomerania. 

3.  "  "  (Berlin)  Brandenburg. 

4.  "  "  (Magdeburg)  Prussian  Province,  Saxony. 

5.  "  "  (Posen)  Province  Posen. 

6.  "  "  (Breslau)  Silesia. 

7.  "  "  (Mlinster)  Westphalia. 

8.  "  "  (Coblenz)  Rhine  Province. 

9.  "  "  (Altona)  Schleswig-Holstein,  Mccklenburg-Schwe- 

rin,  Mecklenburg-Strelitz,  free  cities  of  Ham- 
burg, Liibeck,  and  Bremen. 

10.  "  "      (Hanover)  Province  Hanover,  Oldenburg,  Bruns- 

wick. 

11.  "  "      (Cassel)  Province  Hesse-Nassau,  and  the  Grand 

Duchy  of  Hesse. 

12.  Royal  Saxon  Army  Corps  (Dresden),  Kingdom  of  Saxony. 

13.  Royal    Wilrtemburg   Army    Corps    (Stuttgart),    Kingdom    of 

Wiirtemberg. 

14.  Army  Corps  (Karlsruhe)  Grand  Duchy  of  Baden. 
15-         "  "      (Strassburg)  Alsace. 


116 


THE   GERMAN   ARMY   OF  TO-DAY 


16.  Army  Corps  (Metz)  Lorraine. 

17.  "  "      (Dunzig)  West  Prussia. 

1.  Bavarian  Army  Corps  (Munich)  Bavaria. 

3.  "            "          "      (Wurzburg)  Bavaria. 

In  peace  the  army  inspections  are  formed  by  the  dif- 
ferent corps,  as  follows  : 

The  1st,  2d,  9th,  10th,  and  17th  army  corps  form  the 

1st  Army  Inspection,  at  Hanover. 

The  5th,  6th,  and  12th  army 
corps  form  the  2d  Army  Inspec- 
tion, at  Dresden. 

The  7th,  8th,  and  11th  army 
corps  form  the  3d  Army  Inspec- 
tion, at  Darmstadt. 

The  3d,  4th,  13th,  and  the  two 
Bavarian  army  corps  form  the  4th 
Army  Inspection,  at  Berlin. 

The  Uth,  15th,  IGth,  and  17th 
army  corps  form  the  5th  Army 
Inspection,  at  Karlsruhe. 

The  army  inspectors  are : 

For  the  1st  Army  Inspection, 
General  Field-marshal  Prince  Al- 
brecht  of  Prussia. 

For  the  2d  Army  Inspection, 
General  Field  -  marshal  Prince 
George  of  Saxony. 

For  the  3d  Army  Inspection, 
Grand  Duke  Ludwig  of  Hesse. 

For  the  -Ith  Army  Inspection, 
General  Field -marshal  Count  von 
Blumenthal. 

For  the   5th  Army  Inspection, 
UHLAN  TRUMPETER  Graud  Duko  Friedrich  of  Baden. 


THE  GERMAN   ARMY  OF  TO-DAY  117 

An  army  corp  is  headed  by  the  general  commanding, 
who  has  charge  of  all  the  troops  and  of  the  forts  within 
his  corps  district,  and  is  responsible  to  the  commander- 
in-chief  for  the  condition  and  training  of  his  forces.  He 
has  also  to  see  to  the  maintenance  of  peace  and  order  in 
his  district.  The  power  exercising  the  highest  authority 
in  an  army  corps  is  called  the  General  Command,  the 
business  of  which  is  conducted,  under  the  supervision  of 
the  general  commanding,  by  the  chief  of  the  general  staff 
of  the  army  corps.  The  latter  is  assisted  by  two  or  three 
officers  of  the  general  staif,  two  or  three  aides-de-camp  of 
the  rank  of  field  officers  or  captains,  the  judge-advocate 
of  the  corps  for  conducting  the  courts-marshal  business, 
the  surgeon-general  of  the  corps,  the  veterinary  surgeon 
of  the  corps,  and  the  corps  chaplain  for  attending  to  mili- 
tary-clergical  affairs.  The  intendances  have  charge  of  all 
administration  business. 

JSTot  all  army  corps  have  the  same  composition.  Each 
of  the  army  corps,  from  the  1st  to  the  10th,  and  from  the 
13th  to  the  17th,  consists  of  two  divisions,  besides  the 
artillery,  pioneer,  and  train  formations,  while  the  11th 
and  12th  army  corps  have  each  a  third  division,  which 
bear  the  numbers  25  and  32.  The  latter  forms  j^art  of 
the  Saxon  army  corps,  while  the  former  represents  the 
contingent  of  the  Grand  Duchy  of  Hesse.  Likewise  the 
2d  Bavarian  corps  has  a  strength  of  three  divisions.  Each 
division,  except  those  of  the  guard  corps,  consists  of  two 
infantry  brigades  and  one  cavalry  brigade  (the  first  divis- 
ion having  two  of  the  latter).  An  army  corps,  further- 
more, comprises  a  field  artillery  brigade,  a  battalion  of 
train,  and  a  battalion  of  pioneers,  the  last,  as  also  the  gar- 
rison artillery,  located  within  a  corps  district,  being  sub- 
ject merely  in  a  territorial  meaning  to  the  corps  command. 

The  Prussian  regiments  and  independent  battalions  are 


118  THE   GERMAN  ARMY   OF  TO-DAY 

known — besides  their  regular  number,  and,  in  case  of  the 
cavalry,  by  the  description  of  arms,  whether  cuirassiers, 
hussars,  or  uhlans— by  the  name  of  the  province  from 
which  they  are  recruited. 

By  order  of  the  commander-in-chief  a  number  of  Prus- 
sian regiments  and  independent  battalions  bear  the  names 
of  jDrinces  and  prominent  generals,  for  the  purpose,  as  it 
is  expressed  in  the  order,  "  of  honoring  and  keeping  alive 
for  all  time  the  memory  of  his  [the  King's]  ancestor's 
resting  in  God,  and  of  such  highly  merited  men  as  stood 
by  their  side  in  peace  and  in  war,  and  by  their  distin- 
guished services  acquired  just  claims  to  a  grateful  remem- 
brance bv  Kinff  and  fatherland."  A  few  remments  ^vere 
also  given  names  of  families  who  have  excelled  by  fur- 
nishing for  long  years  an  unusually  large  number  of  their 
members  to  the  arm}^  and  to  prominent  positions  in  the 
same. 

G. — INFANTRY 

The  infantry  is  the  principal  arm  of  the  army,  not  only 
in  regard  to  numbers,  but  for  its  capacity  of  being  em- 
ployed at  any  time  and  in  any  country.  It  forms,  conse- 
quently, the  principal  part  of  the  army,  and  is  organized, 
since  October  1,  1890,  in  538  battalions,  of  which  519  are 
comprised  in  173  regiments,  while  19  are  forming  inde- 
pendent Jager  battalions.  The  number  of  infantry  regi- 
ments contributed  by  Prussia  is  133 ;  Bavaria,  20  ;  Sax- 
ony, 12  ;  Wiirtemberg,  8  ;  and  of  Jiiger  battalions  by 
Prussia,  14  (including  the  guard  Schiitzen  battalion) ;  Ba- 
varia, 2 ;  Saxony,  3. 

The  regiments  are  differently  described  as  infantry, 
fusileer,  grenadier  regiments,  also  a  Schiitzen  regiment  in 
the  12th  army  corps,  but  they  do  not  differ  in  armament, 
training,  and  employment.     The  names  of  fusileers,  gren- 


\ 


V 


DRAGOON 


THE   GERMAN   ARMY   OF   TO-DAY  12 1 

adiers,  and  Schlitzen  have  merely  a  historical  meaning. 
In  point  of  fact  the  infantry  in  the  German  army  is  a 
unity,  which  extends  also  to  the  rifles,  although  they  have 
preserved  some  peculiarities.  The  Prussian  rifle  battalions 
are  mainly  recruited  from  professional  rangers  and  forest- 
ers, who,  as  a  rule,  engage  for  eight  years'  active  service, 
Avhereby  they  establish  a  claim  for  employment  in  subor- 
dinate positions  in  the  Government  forestry  service. 

A  regiment  has  three  battalions,  each  battalion  four 
companies.  The  regiment  is  headed  by  a  colonel,  each 
battalion  by  a  stafl'-officer  as  battalion  commander,  each 
company  by  a  captain  as  chief  of  company.  For  internal 
service  the  company  is  divided  into  inspections  under  the 
supervision  of  lieutenants,  and  in  corporals'  guards  under 
the  guidance  of  non-commissioned  officers. 

To  the  infantry  belongs  also  the  training  battalion  at 
Potsdam,  which  is  attached  to  the  guard  corps,  and  to 
which  ofiicers,  non-commissioned  officers,  and  men  from 
all  infantry  troops  except  the  guard  and  Bavarian  corps 
are  detailed,  generally  for  a  period  of  six  months.  Durino- 
winter  the  training  battalion  is  reduced  to  the  size  of  a 
company. 

Among  the  men  levied  for  the  army,  only  such  are  mus- 
tered into  the  infantry  as  are  able  to  bear  arms  and  the 
fatigues  of  marching.  They  must  have  a  height  of  at 
least  1.57  metres  (Gl.S  inches).  The  most  alert  men  are 
assigned  to  the  rifles.  For  active  service  under  arms  each 
battalion  draws  annually  230  recruits  if  it  is  kept  on  the 
higher,  200  if  on  the  lower  standard. 


H.— CAVALRY 

The  cavalry  is  the  only  branch  of  the  German  army 
which  has  not  been  increased  since  the  Franco  -  German 


122  THE  GERMAN  ARMY  OF  TO-DAY 

Avar  ended.  The  authorities  consider  the  present  strength 
of  93  regiments,  or  465  squadrons,  sulhcient  for  all  the  du- 
ties devolving  upon  this  arm  in  times  of  war,  which  are 
principally  reconnoitring,  watching  the  movements  of  the 
enemy,  and  pursuit,  leaving  a  sufficient  force  available 
when  the  use  of  large  bodies  of  cavalry  appears  necessary 
during  a  battle.  Germany  has  more  cavalry  than  any 
other  European  power,  Kussia  alone  excepted ;  the  latter, 
counting  in  the  Cossack  formations  kept  under  arms  in 
peace-time,  has  116  squadrons  more,  while  France  has  45 
squadrons  less  than  Germany. 

Of  the  93  regiments,  73  are  formed  by  Prussia,  10  by 
Bavaria,  6  by  Saxony,  and  4  by  Wiirtemberg.  Accord- 
ing to  the  lighter  or  heavier  material — horses  as  Avell  as 
men — entering  into  the  composition  of  the  regiments, 
they  are  distinguished  as  light,  medium,  and  heavy  cav- 
alry. The  hussars,  dragoons,  and  the  chevau  -  legers  of 
Bavaria  belong  to  the  light,  the  cuirassiers  to  the  heavy 
cavalry,  while  the  uhlans  are  an  intermediate  arm.  While 
the  existence  of  these  different  kinds  of  cavalry  cannot  be 
called  an  absolute  necessity,  especially  as  drill,  tactics,  and 
employment  have  become  uniform,  historical  tradition 
favors,  and  to  some  extent  justifies,  their  retention. 

According  to  the  above  distinction,  12  regiments  are 
cuirassiers,  or  heavy  horse,  27  regiments  are  uhlans,  34 
are  dragoons  and  chevau-legers,  and  20  hussars.  The  regi- 
ment of  the  Garde  du  Corps  is  included  in  the  cuirassiers. 

The  eight  regiments  of  the  Prussian  guards  form  the 
cavalry  division  of  the  guards,  which  is  divided  into  four 
brigades.  Of  the  line  regiments,  two  or  three  form  a 
brigade,  which  is  designated  by  the  number  of  the  divis- 
ion to  wdiich  it  belongs. 

To  consider,  experiment,  and  consult  upon  all  questions 
of  interest  to  the  arm,  a  cavalry  commission  was  formed 


y,;i^-f^ 


HUSSARS 


y'  OF  THH     '. 

[UFIVERSITTl 


THE   GERMAN   ARMY   OF   TO-DAY  125 

in  1S90.  Members  of  this  board  are,  among  others,  the 
two  cavahy  inspectors,  whose  duty  it  is  to  superintend 
the  annual  cavahy  manoeuvres  and  the  journeys  of  the 
general  and  staff-officers  for  the  study  of  tactics.  They 
perform  these  functions  under  the  direct  personal  super- 
vision of  the  Emperor,  while  under  that  of  the  Minister 
of  AYar  they  inspect  the  training-schools  and  the  depots 
for  remounts. 

Each  regiment  is  composed  of  five  squadrons ;  of  which, 
however,  four  only  take  the  field,  the  fifth  remaining  at 
home  to  form  the  depot.  Every  year  another  squadron 
is  designated  for  this  service.  The  total  strength  of  a 
regiment  is  25  officers,  667  men,  and  792  horses ;  62  of  the 
last  are  officers'  horses. 

As  forming  part  of  the  cavalry,  must  be  further  men- 
tioned the  military  riding-academy  at  Hanover,  consisting 
of  a  school  for  officers,  and  one  for  non-commissioned 
officers  of  the  cavalry  and  field  artillery,  who,  in  a  two- 
years'  course,  receive  a  thorough  training  as  riding-teach- 
ers. Similar  objects  are  pursued  by  the  military  riding- 
academy  at  Dresden  and  the  Equitation  Institute  at 
Munich,  both  of  the  latter  selling  also  trained  horses  to 
mounted  officers  of  the  infantry  at  fixed  prices.  Veterin- 
ary surgeons  are  educated  at  the  Koyal  Veterinary  School 
at  Berlin  ;  farriers,  in  several  training-schools  formed  for 
this  purpose. 

The  horses  for  the  cavalry  are  in  times  of  peace  en- 
tirely obtained  by  off-hand  purchasing  from  dealers.  In 
Prussia  the  horses  are  bought  at  three  years  old  by  com- 
missions composed  of  officers,  and  under  orders  of  the  re- 
mounting department  of  the  War  Ministry  ;  for  the  pur- 
pose of  further  development,  they  are  turned  over  to 
remounting  depots.  After  remaining  there  for  a  year, 
they  are  sent  to  the  regiments,  where  they  are  carefully 


126  THE   GERMAN   ARMY   OF   TO-DAY 

trained,  and,  as  a  rule,  are  not  put  into  active  service  until 
they  are  six  years  old.  A  similar  system  prevails  in  Ba- 
varia, while  in  Saxony  the  horses  are  turned  over  to  the 
regiments  as  soon  as  purchased.  Germany  is  fortunate  in 
possessing  an  abundance  of  excellent  horses,  which,  after 
careful  training,  answer  every  requirement  of  the  service. 
For  the  cavalry,  men  of  good  muscular  development 
are  selected  who  are  accustomed  to  horses,  and  physically 
particularly  adapted  for  the  exigencies  of  the  service.  For 
this  reason  they  should  not  be  too  heavy,  and  the  Hmit  of 
weight  is  about  05  kilograms  (or  146  pounds)  for  the  light, 
and  YO  kilograms  (or  157  pounds)  for  the  heavy  cavalry. 

I. — ARTILLERY 

The  consideration  of  all  questions  relating  to  the  or- 
ganization, employment,  and  armament  of  the  artillery  is 
in  charge  of  the  General  Committee  for  Artillery  Affairs. 
Tests  of  new  material  are  carried  on  by  the  trial  battalion 
under  the  direction  of  a  permanent  commission  formed 
for  this  purpose.  In  order  to  reach  the  greatest  possible 
efficiency  in  target  practice  and  the  handling  of  the  guns, 
officers  and  non-commissioned  officers  receive  instruction 
in  two  schools  of  gunnery,  which  are  maintained  for  the 
field  and  garrison  artillery.  In  the  technical  institu- 
tions— artillery  workshops,  pyrotechnical  laboratory,  gun 
foundery,  ammunition  factory,  and  powder-mills  —  the 
whole  equipment  of  the  artillery  as  w^ell  as  the  train  ma- 
terial for  the  other  branches  of  the  service  is  manu- 
factured. 

The  artillery  consists  of  field  and  garrison  artillery — 
the  former  attending  the  operations  in  the  field,  the  latter 
being  employed  at  the  attack  and  defence  of  fortified 
places.  Since  the  war  of  1870-71  the  artillery  has  con- 
siderably grown  in  importance,  and  in  consequence   its 


CUIRASSIERS 


strength  has  been  materially  increased.  [Nevertheless  it 
has  not  reached  that  of  the  French  army,  which  has,  even 
in  peace,  46  field  batteries  more  than  Germany. 

Recruiting  and  training  are  entirely  different  in  the 
two  branches  of  the  arm ;  and  while  the  field  artillery 
forms  part  of  the  army  corps  organization,  and  is  placed 
under  the  general  commands,  the  garrison  artillery,  which 
as  foot  artillery  is  often  called  the  infant  arm  of  the 
army,  forms  a  distinctive  branch  under  the  command  of 
an  inspector-general. 

The  German  field  artillery  consists  of  43  reg'iments, 
formed  in  20  brigades.  Prussia  has  30  regiments,  Bavaria 
5,  Saxony  3,  and  Wiirtemberg  2.  One  brigade,  consisting 
as  a  rule  of  2 — but  in  the  case  of  the  11th,  the  12th,  and  the 


128  THE  GERMAN   ARMY  OF  TO-DAY 

2d  Bavarian  corps,  of  3  regiments — is  attached  to  each 
army  corps.  The  total  number  of  batteries  since  April  1, 
1890,  is  434,  of  which  40  are  horse  batteries,  the  men 
following  the  guns  on  horseback,  while  in  the  remaining 
338  field  batteries  the  men  ride  upon  the  caissons.  The 
horse  batteries  are  naturally  able  to  cover  much  more 
ground  at  a  quicker  pace,  and  are  therefore  especially 
adapted  for  use  in  connection  with  cavalry. 

The  number  of  batteries  varies  in  the  different  regi- 
ments, some  having  12,  others  0,  7,  9,  and  11  batteries. 
As  a  rule,  3  field  and  2  horse  batteries  form  a  division 
{AUheihing),  and  3  or  4  divisions  a  regiment.  A  regiment 
is  commanded  by  a  colonel,  a  division  by  a  staff-officer, 
and  a  battery  by  a  captain  as  chief  of  battery.  On  war 
footing  a  battery  consists  of  6  guns,  8  ammunition  cais- 
sons, 2  magazine  wagons,  and  a  forge.  In  peace  only  4 — 
sometimes  6 — guns  are  kept  in  service.  For  this  reason 
the  number  of  horses  required  on  mobilization  is  increased 
almost  twofold. 

Since  the  field  artillery  has  been  attached  to  the  differ- 
ent army  corps  as  to  tactical  training,  organization,  mobi- 
lization, and  personal  matters,  the  position  of  Inspector- 
general  of  the  Field  Artillery  has  been  created,  who  has 
the  supervision  of  technical  matters  and  of  the  target 
practice. 

The  composition  of  the  garrison  or  foot  artillery  is  of  a 
different  nature.  Under  an  inspector  -  general  as  com- 
mander-in-chief, there  are  4  inspections,  each  composed  of 
2  or  3  regiments.  In  addition,  Bavaria  maintains  a  sepa- 
rate inspection.  The  total  strength  of  the  foot  artillery 
consists  of  31  battalions,  of  which  Prussia  furnishes  24, 
Bavaria  4,  Saxony  2,  and  Wiirtemberg  1.  In  all  ques- 
tions relating  to  territorial  matters  only  the  foot  artillery 
is  subject  to  the  jurisdiction  of   the  army  corps  within 


THE  GERMAN  ARMY   OF  TO-DAY  129 

Avhose  territory  the  different  regiments  are  stationed. 
The  majority  of  the  regiments  are,  for  speedy  readiness 
in  war,  garrisoned  at  the  large  forts  near  the  borders  of 
the  empire. 

The  large  quantities  of  material — cannons,  wagons,  har- 
ness, etc. — not  used  by  the  troops  in  times  of  peace  are 
stored  in  artillery  depots,  under  the  charge  of  staff-officers 
or  captains,  who  are  responsible  for  the  preservation  of 
the  goods,  which  must  always  be  kept  ready  for  imme- 
diate use.  For  purposes  of  additional  supervision  four 
inspections  of  artillery  depots  are  formed,  each  under 
command  of  an  inspector  with  the  rank  of  a  staff-officer 
or  major-general. 

K. — ENGINEERS,    PIONEERS,    AND  RAILWAY   TROOPS 

The  engineers  and  pioneers  of  Prussia  are  under  the 
command  of  an  inspector-general  as  highest  in  authority ; 
they  are  divided  into  four  engineer  and  two  pioneer  in- 
spections. The  former  comprise  all  fortifications ;  the 
latter,  the  pioneer  battalions.  Bavaria  has  one  inspection 
of  engineers  and  fortifications,  the  pioneer  battalion  of 
Saxony  is  attached  to  the  artillery,  and  that  of  AViirtem- 
berg  stands  directly  under  the  general  commanding  the 
army  corps. 

The  officers  of  the  engineer  corps  are  either  employed 
in  the  construction  and  maintenance  of  fortifications,  or 
they  do  service  with  the  pioneer  battalions.  One  of  the 
latter  is  attached  to  each  array  corps,  bearing  the  number 
or  designation  of  the  latter.  But  the  jurisdiction  of  the 
commander  of  the  army  corps  extends  only  to  territorial 
matters,  and  he  is  in  virtual  command  only  during  the 
large  manoeuvres  of  field  exercises;  the  supervision  and 
regulation  of  the  drill  and  the  technical  training  are  ex- 
clusively in  charge  of  the  inspectors.     Of  the  20  pioneer 


130  THE  GERMAN  ARMY   OF   TO-DAY 

battalions,  Prussia  has  16,  Bavaria  2,  Saxony  and  "Wiir- 
temberg  1  each.  As  parts  of  the  Prussian  engineer  corps, 
are  to  be  mentioned  the  committee  on  engineering  affairs, 
a  board  composed  of  general  and  staff  officers,  which  has 
to  consider  all  questions  arising  in  connection  with  this 
branch  of  the  service ;  a  school  of  fortifications,  where 
non-commissioned  officers  and  privates  are  trained  for 
service  as  subalterns  in  the  construction  of  fortifications ; 
and  the  telegraph  inspection,  with  a  school  of  telegraphy. 

A  battalion  of  pioneers  is  composed  of  four  companies, 
whose  drill  differs,  inasmuch  as  one  company  is  trained 
principally  in  bridge-building  and  another  in  mining.  All 
pioneers  must  also  pass  through  the  regular  infantry  drill, 
for,  in  case  of  need,  they  are  used  as  infantr}',  and  must 
know  how  to  fight  as  such. 

The  railway  troops  consist  of  the  Prussian  railway 
brigade,  in  technical  and  scientific  matters  under  the  com- 
mand  of  the  Chief  of  the  General  Staff  of  the  army,  and  of 
the  Bavarian  railway  battalion.  The  former  is  composed 
of  two  regiments  of  two  battahons  each,  a  battalion  being 
subdivided  into  four  companies.  The  Bavarian  battalion 
has  only  two  companies ;  Saxony  and  Wlirtemberg  fur- 
nish each  one  company  of  the  second  Prussian  regiment. 
During  a  war  the  raihvay  troops  are  charged  with  the 
construction  of  new  railroads,  the  repairing  of  lines  de- 
stroyed by  the  enemy,  and  the  demolition  of  others,  when 
this  becomes  a  necessity.  In  times  of  peace  these  troops 
receive  a  tliorough  technical  training,  for  which  purpose 
the  entire  management  of  a  military  railroad  running 
from  Berlin  to  the  rifle  range  at  Ivummersdorf — a  dis- 
tance of  about  33  English  miles — is  under  their  charge. 
This  line  is  also  open  for  the  use  of  the  public.  To 
the  railway  brigade  is  attached  an  aeronautic  detach- 
ment,  which    pursues   experiments    with    balloons,  with 


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THE   GERMAN   ARMY  OF   TO-DAY  133 

special  regard  for  their  use  in  war  for  military  purposes. 
As  soon  as  the  problem  of  aerial  navigation  has  been  satis- 
factorily solved,  this  detachment  will,  of  course,  greatly 
gain  in  importance,  and  will  be  correspondingly  increased 
in  strength. 

For  the  technical  organizations  men  are  selected  who 
are  tit  to  work  in  the  open  air  and  under  unfavorable  con- 
ditions without  showing  fatigue  when  special  exertion  is 
required,  and  who  in  their  private  life  have  had  some  ex- 
perience in  kindred  occupations. 

L. — MILITARY  TRAIN   AND   TRANSPORTATION 

The  German  army  has  21  train  battalions,  of  which  17 
are  formed  by  Prussia,  2  by  Bavaria,  and  1  each  by 
Saxony  and  Wiirtemberg.  With  the  exception  of  the 
16th  and  25th,  which  consist  of  two  companies,  and  the 
12th  battalion,  which  has  four,  each  battalion  is  composed 
of  three  companies.  To  each  of  the  Bavarian  battalions  a 
sanitary  detachment  is  attached.  In  addition  each  bat- 
talion includes  a  company  composed  entirely  of  men  who 
are  bakers  by  profession.  They  are  in  peace-time  em- 
ployed in  the  military  bakeries  established  in  all  larger 
garrisons,  where  the  bread  for  non-commissioned  officers 
and  privates  is  made.  At  mobilization  they  furnish  the 
material  for  the  field  bakeries. 

The  train  battalions  form  part  of  the  artillery  brigades, 
except  in  Bavaria,  where  they  are  subject  to  a  distinctive 
inspection. 

These  train  organizations,  which  have  to  furnish  the 
men  and  horses  for  the  transportation  system  of  the  en- 
tire army,  require  naturally  a  large  number  of  men  as 
soon  as  the  army  is  put  upon  a  war  footing.  For  this 
reason  their  method  of  recruiting  and  drilling  is  entirely 
different  from  that  of  the  other  branches  of  the  service. 


134  THE  GERMAN  ARMY    OF   TO-DAY 

They  draw  fresh  recruits  twice  a  year,  w^ho,  after  being 
drilled  for  six  months  only,  are  placed  in  the  reserve,  only 
a  limited  number  serving  three  years  for  the  purpose  of 
being  trained  as  non-commissioned  officers.  In  addition, 
a  number  of  non-commissioned  officers  and  privates  of 
the  cavalry  are  every  year  instructed  in  the  service  and 
placed  in  the  train  reserve. 

The  whole  system  is  divided  into  three  parts,  viz. :  for 
the  transportation  of  the  baggage  of  officers  and  adminis- 
trative officials,  together  with  the  latter's  bureau  materi- 
als, as  also  of  a  supply  of  clothing  to  replace  that  worn 
out  by  the  troops ;  for  transportation  of  a  supply  of  pro- 
visions ;  and,  finally,  for  transporting  a  supply  of  ammuni- 
tion to  replenish  the  stock  of  the  troops.  Sanitary  de- 
tachments and  field  hospitals  are  also  formed  by  the  train 
battalions. 

At  mobilization  the  wagons  are  divided  into  two  col- 
umns or  echelons.  One,  called  the  small  baggage,  carries 
everything  necessary  for  the  troops  during  or  immediate- 
ly after  a  battle,  while  the  heav^y  baggage  follows  at  a 
greater  distance,  and  carries  all  supplies  required  for  the 
sustenance  of  the  army  during  its  operations  in  the  field. 

Every  army  corps  has  its  own  train,  divided  into  wagon 
columns  as  above.  They  comprise  ammunition  trains, 
provision  trains,  the  pontoon  train,  the  field  bakery,  a 
depot  of  remounts,  and  the  field  hospitals. 

While  it  has  been  the  constant  aim  of  the  authorities 
to  reduce  the  number  of  wagons  to  what  absolute  neces- 
sity requires,  the  train  of  an  army  corps  at  present  com- 
prises at  least  1700  wagons  and  6000  horses. 


M. — THE  MEDICAL   DEPARTMENT 


In  accordance  with  the  principle  that  the  maintenance 
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THE  GERMAN  ARMY   OF  TO-DAY  \'^'] 

final  success,  and  that  the  care  for  the  troops  is  one  of  the 
most  important  duties  of  the  commander  and  the  a(hnin- 
istration,  the  greatest  attention  has  been  paid  in  the  Ger- 
man army  to  sanitary  matters.  The  system  is  divided 
into  the  medical  persotuiel  and  the  sanitary  institutions. 
The  former  comprises  all  sanitary  officers,  including  the 
apothecaries,  who  rank  with  administrative  officials,  the 
non-commissioned  surgeons  and  apothecaries,  the  hospital 
stewards,  the  nurses,  and,  in  war,  the  men  carrying  away 
the  wounded.  The  sanitary  institutions  comprise,  in 
peace,  the  garrison  hospitals  and  regimental  wards  for 
sick  soldiers ;  in  war,  the  sanitary  detachments,  the  field 
hospitals,  the  war  etaijjjen  and  reserve  hospitals,  and  the 
sanitary  trains  upon  the  railroads. 

The  highest  authority  in  peace  is  the  Medical  Depart- 
ment of  the  Prussian  War  Ministry ;  in  war,  the  chief  of 
the  sanitary  service,  who  is  attached  to  the  headquarters 
of  the  army.  Under  the  direction  of  the  Surgeon-gen- 
eral of  the  army,  a  surgeon-general  supervises  the  sani- 
tary service  of  each  army  corps.  In  Bavaria  and  Saxony 
a  sanitary  department  or  a  sanitary  director  takes  the 
place  of  the  Surgeon-general.  In  each  division  the  sur- 
geon oldest  in  rank  has  general  charge  of  the  sanitary 
affairs,  while  the  practical  work  devolves  upon  the  staff 
and  assistant  surgeons  attached  to  every  body  of  troops, 
who  are  in  turn  assisted  by  non-commissioned  surgeons. 
All  surgeons  have  the  rank  of  officers,  and  occupy  posi- 
tions of  absolute  equality  with  the  latter. 

It  may  be  mentioned  here  as  a  matter  of  interest  that 
the  death-rate  of  the  German  army  in  peace  is  smaller 
than  that  of  any  other  standing  army.  The  same  applies 
to  the  number  of  sick  and  disabled  persons. 

In  war  every  sick  or  wounded  soldier,  as  well  as  any 
person  charged  with  the  care  for  the  same,  is  protected 


138  THE   GERMAN   ARMY   OF  TO-DAY 

by  the  stipulations  of  the  Geneva  Convention.  All  those 
connected  with  the  sanitary  service  carry,  therefore,  the 
well-known  badge,  the  red  cross  on  white  ground,  which 
is  also  painted  on  every  wagon  belonging  to  the  service, 
Avhile  a  flag  showing  the  same  emblem  floats  over  every 
hospital.  Red  flags,  or  red  lanterns  during  the  night, 
make  known  at  large  distances  the  places  where  the 
wounded  are  collected  and  where  the  field  hospitals  are 
established. 

Every  soldier  carries  a  small  package  of  bandages,  and 
around  his  neck  a  badge  with  his  name,  for  purposes  of 
identification.  Every  hospital  steward  carries  a  satchel 
with  bandages,  and  a  bottle  with  restoratives ;  every  sur- 
geon a  case  of  instruments.  Every  battalion  of  infantry 
or  regiment  of  cavalry  is  followed  by  a  medicine-wagon, 
filled  with  medicines  and  bandages,  stretchers,  and  every- 
thing else  necessary  for  the  care  of  wounded  or  sick  sol- 
diers during  march  or  battle. 

The  voluntary  medical  service  has  become  a  valuable 
adjunct  to  the  regular  military  sanitary  service  since  it 
has  been  regulated  by  proper  rules.  It  is  under  the  di- 
rection of  a  commissioner  appointed  by  the  Emperor,  and 
many  excellent  young  men  entered  its  ranks  during  the 
last  war  who  were  incapacitated  from  some  cause  for 
other  service.  Many  eminent  physicians  devoted  them- 
selves likewise  to  the  care  for  the  sufferers  by  accepting 
positions  as  consulting  surgeons-general. 

N. — MILITARY  ADMINISTRATION   OP  JUSTICE 

Military  justice  is  administered  under  the  direction  of 
the  Judge -advocate -general  in  Prussia,  the  Judge -advo- 
cate in  Bavaria,  and  the  Supreme  Court  Martial  in  Sax- 
ony, by  corps,  division,  brigade,  regimental,  and  garrison 
courts.     Subject  to  military  justice  are  all  persons  in  ac- 


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THE   GERMAN  ARJIY   OF   TO-DAY  141 

tive  service,  all  officers  retired  with  half-pay  on  waiting 
orders,  and  the  administrative  officials  of  the  higher 
o-rades.  There  are  hio-her  and  lower  courts.  The  former 
adjudge  all  cases  where  officers  are  concerned,  or  where 
the  accused  is  a  non-commissioned  officer  or  private,  and 
the  punishment  in  case  of  conviction  would  be  harder 
than  simple  confinement,  reduction  in  rank,  or  transfer 
into  the  second  class.  All  other  cases  belong  before  the 
lower  courts.  Every  one  of  the  courts  named  above  is 
composed  of  the  commander  of  the  respective  troop  as 
president,  and  a  judge-advocate.  In  the  regimental  courts 
the  place  of  the  latter  is  taken  by  an  investigating  officer. 
After  an  investigation  conducted  by  the  judge-advocate 
or  the  investigating  officer,  with  one  or  more  officers  as 
assessors,  the  case  is  submitted  to  a  court-martial  of  the 
higher  or  lower  order,  as  the  case  may  be.  A  court-mar- 
tial is  always  composed  of  a  judge-advocate  or  investigat- 
ing officer  and  five  classes  of  judges,  whose  rank  depends 
upon  that  of  the  defendant.  If  the  latter  is  a  private,  for 
instance,  three  judges  are  officers,  one  a  non-commissioned 
officer,  and  one  a  private.  The  court-martial  is  presided 
over  by  a  staff-officer  or  captain.  The  judgment  must  be 
confirmed  by  the  president  of  the  judicial  district. 

In  Bavaria,  military  district  courts  take  the  place  of 
the  higher  courts-martial,  and  the  proceedings  are  public. 

Offences  against  military  order  and  discipline  for  which 
no  punishment  is  mentioned  in  the  code,  transgressions  of 
regulations,  and  such  infractions  of  the  rules  as  render 
the  defendant  liable  to  slight  penalties  only,  are  subject 
to  so-called  disciplinary  punishment.  This  applies  in 
times  of  war  also  to  all  civilians  connected  with  the  army 
in  any  capacity  whatsoever,  and  to  prisoners  of  war. 
Power  to  execute  disciplinary  justice  is  granted  only  to 
officers  in  command  of  troops  from  the  rank  of  captain 


142  THE   GERMAN   ARMY   OF  TU-DAY 

upward,  and  the  extent  of  their  power  is  regulated  by 
the  position  they  occupy.  On  the  effective  use  of  this 
power  the  disciphne  of  the  troop  dejDends  to  a  very  large 
degree. 


O. — SEPARATE   ORGANIZATIONS 


To  the  army  belong  several  separate  organizations. 
One  of  them  is  a  corps  of  mounted  rifles  employed  as 
couriers  in  peace  as  well  as  in  war,  and  in  the  diplomatic 
service.  Another  one  is  composed  of  non-commissioned 
officers  of  the  guards  who  have  passed  a  long  term  of 
service,  and  whose  duty  it  is  to  watch  the  royal  palaces 
and  gardens,  and  to  mount  guard  at  special  occasions  and 
celebrations ;  this  organization  is  called  the  Company  of 
Palace  Guards.  The  corps  of  body  gendarmes  furnishes 
the  orderlies  in  personal  attendance  on  the  Emperor. 
The  territorial  or  field  gendarmery,  under  command  of  a 
general,  is  composed  of  non  -  commissioned  officers.  Its 
discipline  and  subsistence  are  regulated  by  army  officers ; 
its  functions  and  duties,  by  officials  of  the  Ministry  of  the 
Interior. 

p. — CHAPLAIN   DEPARTMENT 

At  the  head  of  the  militarv  clergy  of  Prussia  are 
]ilaced  the  Protestant  and  the  Catholic  Feldjjropste  (chap- 
lains-general), directly  under  the  AYar  Ministry.  To  each 
army  corjis  a  chaplain  is  attached,  while  two  or  four 
division  chaplains,  some  of  them  Protestants  and  some 
Catholics,  are  subject  to  the  chaplain's  orders.  These 
clergymen  have  charge  of  the  spiritual  affairs  of  the  con- 
gregations into  which  the  troops  are  united.  All  soldiers 
must  attend  church  on  regularly  designated  Sundays  and 
holidays,  and  take  communion  at  least  once  a  year.  In 
the  field  the  duties  of  the  chaplains  are  especially  benefi- 
cial and  gratifying.  By  holding  religious  services  and 
dispensing  consolation  and  encouragement  among  the  sick 


THE  GERMAN  ARMY   OF   TO-DAY  143 

and  wounded,  they  are  most  efficient  instruments  for  pre- 
serving and  animating  religious  sentiment  in  the  army. 

The  army  chapLains  are  officials  of  superior  rank,  and 
wear  a  distinctive  official  dress  when  officiating  and  in 
the  field.  In  Saxony  the  system  is  practically  the  same 
as  in  Prussia,  while  Bavaria  and  Wiirtemberg  have  no 
army  chaplains  in  peace,  their  duties  being  performed  by 
ministers  connected  with  the  churches  at  the  different 
garrisons. 

It  must  be  added  that  all  denominations  have  equal 
rights  in  the  army. 

IV.— TRAINING 

The  final  object  of  all  training  in  peace  is  to  secure 
success  in  war,  therefore  all  efforts  must  be  directed  to 
a  martial  training  of  individuals  as  well  as  of  tactical 
bodies.  This  duty  devolves  upon  commanding  officers  of 
every  rank,  from  the  captain  upward,  who  shall  in  their 
work  be  allowed  as  much  latitude  as  possible,  superiors 
only  to  interfere  in  cases  of  mistakes  or  failure  of  prog- 
ress. The  system  of  advancing  from  less  to  more  difficult 
training  has  to  be  strictly  observed ;  individuals  and 
smaller  squads  must  be  thoroughly  drilled  before  they 
are  made  part  of  larger  formations.  The  thorough  and 
skilful  schooling  of  the  individual  soldier  and  of  the  single 
horse  is  rightly  considered  of  the  utmost  importance. 

The  drilling  of  the  recruits  takes  generally  from  two  to 
three  months,  whereupon  they  are  mustered  into  the  com- 
panies, squadrons,  or  batteries,  where  they  are  instructed 
in  regular  evolutions  and  movements,  in  common  with 
the  older  men.  Then  follow  the  exercises  in  battalions 
and  regiments  and  in  mixed  divisions ;  and,  finally,  the 
fall  manoeuvres,  which  are  held  in  the  open  field,  and 


144  THE  GERMAN  ARMY  OF  TO-DAY 

made  to  approach  as  near  as  possible  the  realities  of  war. 
Some  army  corps  have  Emperor's  Manoeuvres,  so  called 
from  the  attendance  of  the  Supreme  Commander  and  offi- 
cers of  foreign  armies.  The  remaining  army  corps  exer- 
cise in  division  formations,  with  their  allotments  of  artil- 
lery and  pioneers.  There  are  also  arranged  every  fall 
fortification  exercises  on  a  large  scale,  and  manoeuvres  of 
cavalry  divisions  formed  by  the  concentration  of  a  num- 
ber of  cavalry  regiments. 

General  officers  commanding  troops  have  to  inspect  the 
troops  under  their  care  in  order  to  satisfy  themselves  of 
the  deo^ree  attained  in  training.  Time  and  duration  of 
such  inspections  are  regulated  by  general  rules.  At  the 
conclusion  of  every  inspection  the  inspector-general  shall 
give,  in  the  form  of  an  instructive  criticism,  his  oj)inion 
of  the  bearing  and  performances  of  the  troops. 

v.— ARMAMENT 

The  rifle  model  of  1888  in  use  in  the  German  infantry 
answers  all  requirements  of  a  hand  fire-arm.  A  breech- 
loader by  construction,  allowing  the  simultaneous  loading 
of  five  cartridges  united  in  one  frame,  it  covers  a  maxi- 
mum range  of  3800  metres,  although  sure  effects  can  be 
guaranteed  only  at  distances  up  to  1500  metres.  The 
rifle  is  of  8  millimetres  calibre,  and  the  bullet,  made  of 
hard  lead  with  a  nickel  covering,  weighs  11.5  grams ;  the 
composition  of  the  powder  and  the  size  of  the  powder 
measure  are  secrets  of  the  Government.  Besides  the  rifle, 
the  infantry  carries  side-arms,  which  can  be  attached  to 
the  rifle  as  a  bayonet,  rendering  the  former  also  useful 
for  close  fighting.  Officers  and  sergeants  -  major  wear 
swords  and  revolvers. 

A  uniform  armament  of  the  entire  cavalry  has  been 


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THE  GERMAN   ARMY   OF   TO-DAY  147 

established  by  the  equipment  of  cuirassier,  hussar,  and 
dragoon  regiments  with  steel  tube  lances.  Disputes  about 
the  value  of  the  lance  are  probably  as  old  as  the  cavalry 
itself,  says  a  prominent  military  author,  but  its  superiority 
over  other  weapons  when  used  in  pursuit  or  single  com- 
bat is  generally  admitted.  The  cavalry  soldier  is  armed 
also  with  carbine  and  sword,  the  former  enabling  him  to 
take  part  in  fights  at  short  distances. 

The  entire  field  artillery  has  guns  of  8.8  centimetre  cal- 
ibre, as  yet  of  two  slightly  differing  kinds  of  construction, 
known  as  the  heavy  field-gun  and  the  field-gun  proper. 
The  former  is  used  by  the  field  artillery,  the  latter  by 
mounted  or  horse  batteries.  As  the  construction  of  heavy 
field-guns  has  been  abandoned,  it  is  but  a  question  of  time 
wlien  the  entire  field  artillery  shall  use  uniform  material, 
an  advantage  not  chained  vet  by  the  field  artillerv  of  any 
other  country. 

Fortress  and  siege  guns  differ  in  construction  and  cali- 
bre, according  to  the  different  objects  of  their  use  in  for- 
tress wars. 

VI.— EQUIPMENT  AND   CLOTHING 

The  uniform  of  the  German,  army  is  handsome  and 
practical ;  a  few  changes,  however,  are  just  now  being 
contemplated.  Officers  and  military  officials  have  to  pro- 
vide their  own  clothing  and  equipment,  while  non-com- 
missioned officers  and  men  receive  the  same  from  their 
respective  troops,  special  funds  being  allowed  the  latter 
for  that  purpose. 

The  regulation  or  field-service  head-dress  of  the  infan- 
try, artillery,  dragoons,  and  pioneers  is  the  helmet ;  of  the 
rifles  (Jager  and  Schiitzen),  the  "  kiippi ;"  of  the  uhlans, 
the  "  czapka ;"   of  the  hussars,  the  fur  cap ;  and  of  the 


148  THE   GERMAN  ARMY   OF  TO-DAY 

cuirassiers,  the  steel  helmet.  The  uniform  coat  of  the  in- 
fantry and  pioneers  is  dark  blue ;  of  the  rifles,  dark  green, 
collars  and  cuffs  being  red  and  blaclv  respectively  ;  the 
shoulder-straps  bear  the  number  of  the  regiment  or  the 
monogram  of  the  princely  chief.  Cuirassiers  wear  white 
coats,  the  several  regiments  differing  by  the  color  of  the 
sleeve  revers  and  braiding ;  the  dragoons  have  light-blue 
coats  ;  the  uhlans,  dark-blue  "  ulankas."  The  hussar  regi- 
ments are  distinguished  by  the  different  colors  of  their 
"attila"  (red,  green,  light  and  dark  blue,  and  black,  with 
white  or  yellow  braiding).  The  difference  in  color  and 
equipment  of  the  several  branches  of  the  cavalry  is 
founded  on  historical  traditions  which  the  army  likes  to 
preserve.  The  cuirass  is  only  worn  at  parades,  but  no 
longer  in  the  field,  as  it  oppresses  and  hinders  the  horse- 
man. 

The  trousers  are  almost  without  exception  made  of 
black  cloth,  riding- boots  being  worn  by  all  mounted 
troops,  as  also  by  the  general  and  staff  officers,  and  by 
mounted  officers  of  the  infantry. 

All  troops  of  the  guard  corps  and  the  body-guard  regi- 
ments are  distinguished  by  white  or  yellow  stripes  upon 
the  collar.  As  to  color,  style,  and  equipment,  the  uni- 
forms of  the  non- Prussian  army  corps  differ  in  several 
regards  from  the  above  description.  In  Saxony,  for 
instance,  the  artillery  has  kept  the  dark -green,  the  cav- 
alry the  light  -  blue  coat ;  in  Bavaria  the  predominant 
color  of  the  infantry  is  a  light  blue ;  of  the  cavahy  a 
steel  green. 

Complete  uniformity,  however,  has  been  established 
throughout  tlie  German  army  as  to  the  rank  distinction, 
tliose  of  the  non-commissioned  officers  being;  marked  on 
collars  and  cuffs,  of  the  officers  on  the  differently  shaped 
shoulder-straps.     By  the  number  of  stars  attached  to  the 


THE  GEliiMAN  AltilY   OF  TO-DAY  149 

latter  the  rank  of  an  officer  is  recognizable.  Epaulets 
are  only  worn  at  grand  parades,  court  festivals,  and  for 
full  toilet. 


VII.— OFFICERS,  non-com:\iissioned  officers,  and 

PRIVATES 

A. — THE   CORPS   OF   OFFICERS 

"The  spirit  of  the  Prussian  army  is  moulded  by  its 
officers,"  said  one  of  the  heroes  of  the  wars  against  Na- 
poleon I.  This  utterance  is  as  true  now  as  it  was  eighty 
years  ago,  for  the  spirit  governing  the  corps  of  officers, 
its  condition,  and  efficiency  have  a  decisive  influence  upon 
the  w^iole  army.  The  corps  of  officers  is  entitled  to  a 
privileged  position  in  the  community,  which  is  shared  by 
its  individual  members  in,  private  life. 

The  corps  of  officers  comjjletes  itself  from  graduates  of 
cadet  schools  and  from  young  men  called  "  avantageurs," 
who  enter  the  army  with  the  expectation  of  being  pro- 
moted. In  cadet  schools,  principally  sons  of  officers  of 
the  army  and  navy  and  government  officials  are  edu- 
cated ;  in  limited  numbers  also  sons  of  civilians.  They 
enter  the  schools  at  the  age  of  ten  in  Prussia,  at  the  age 
of  twelve  years  in  Bavaria  and  Saxony.  The  plan  of  in- 
struction is  substantially  the  same  as  that  of  an  industrial 
high-school,  the  tuition  fee  is  moderate,  and  the  principal 
part  of  the  cost  of  maintenance  is  borne  by  the  State. 

The  officers  are  divided  into  four  classes  or  grades  : 
subaltern  officers,  or  second  and  first  lieutenants;  cap- 
tains, called  "  Rittmeister"  in  the  cavalry;  statf-officers, 
comprising  majors,  lieutenant-colonels,  and  colonels ;  and 
finally  generals,  subdivided  into  major-generals,  lieuten- 
ant-generals, generals  of  the  infantry,  cavalry,  or  artillery, 

colonel-generals,  and  general  field-marshals. 
10* 


150  THE  GERMAN   ARMY  OF  TO-DAY 

The  pecuniary  compensation  granted  to  officers  is, 
generally  speaking,  sufficient,  though  in  the  lower  grades 
exceedingly  moderate.  It  is  hardly  possible  for  a  second 
lieutenant,  whose  monthly  income,  inclusive  of  the  allow- 
ance for  providing  quarters,  averages  about  120  marks 
(about  $30),  to  make  both  ends  meet  without  the  aid  of  a 
private  income,  even  if  he  exercises  the  strictest  economy 
and  avoids  all  expenditures  not  absolutely  necessary. 
Officers  who  have  no  private  means  whatever,  or  whose 
relatives  are  not  in  a  position  to  assist  them,  receive  a 
small  extra  allowance  out  of  special  funds  or  from  the 
Emperor. 

Officers  of  the  rank  of  captain  of  the  first  class  (cap- 
tains and  Eittmeisters  are  divided  into  two  classes,  ac- 
cording to  the  salary  they  receive)  and  officers  of  the 
higher  grades  receive  a  compensation  which  may  be 
called  sufficient  for  providing  the  necessaries  of  life  and 
meeting  the  expenditures  connected  with  the  position. 
Still,  the  purchase  and  maintenance  of  the  horses  require 
monetary  sacrifices  of  considerable  magnitude,  as  the 
Government  grants  only  an  allowance  for  the  daily  ra- 
tions and  the  stabling  of  horses  where  they  are  not  pro- 
vided for  in  barracks.  It  is  intended  to  extend  this  al- 
lowance to  the  purchasing  and  replacing  of  horses.  The 
total  annual  income  of  a  captain  of  the  first  class  is  about 
5000  marks  ($1250) ;  that  of  a  major  or  lieutenant-colonel, 
f)600  marks  ($1650) ;  of  the  commander  of  a  regiment, 
900r»  marks  ($2250).  In  addition  to  the  actual  salary, 
every  officer  not  stationed  in  barracks  receives  an  allow- 
ance for  providing  lodgings,  which  is  measured  b}^  the 
prices  ruling  in  the  garrison  in  which  he  is  stationed  and 
by  the  rank  of  the  recipient. 

It  is  impossible  for  a  young  officer  to  maintain  by  his 
salary  a  family  in  the  style  made  necessary  by  his  social 


THE  GER:\rAN  ARMY   OF  TO-DAY 


151 


position.  If  lie  wants  to  iiiar- 
ry,  he  must  receive  permis- 
sion from  the  Emperor,  and 
is  required  to  furnish  satis- 
factory proof  of  a  rehable 
private  income  amounting 
(in  Prussia)  to  at  least  1800 
marks  per  annum ;  in  some 
of  the  other  States  it  is  even 
higher.  Captains  of  the  first 
class  and  officers  of  the  high- 
er grades  are  not  required  to 
possess  private  means.  The 
future  wife  of  an  officer 
must  enjoy  an  unblemished 
reputation,  belong  to  a  fam- 
ily of  unquestioned  respect- 
ability, and  possess  all  the 
qualities  which  tend  to  make 
a  worthy  member  of  the  so- 
ciety she  enters. 

Officers  who,  on  account 
of  old  age  or  physical  in- 
firmities, are  incapacitated 
for  service  in  the  field  are 
discharged  with  pensions  or 
placed  on  waiting  orders. 
An  age  limitation,  as  in  France  and  in  the  United  States, 
does  not  exist.  The  amount  of  the  pension  is  regulated 
by  the  grade  of  the  retiring  officer,  the  salary  he  receives, 
and  the  length  of  service;  it  is  never  higher,  how^ever, 
than  three-quarters  of  the  amount  drawn  at  the  time  of 
retirement.  AVidow^s  of  officers,  and  orphans  until  they 
are  seventeen  years  old,  receive  pensions  and  allowances 


GRENADIER    OK    THE    GUARD    (fUSILEER 

battalion) 


152  THE  GERMAN  ARMY  OF  TO-DAY 

for  purposes  of  education  out  of  tlie  Imperial  Fund  for 
Officers'  "Widows. 

As  a  rule,  every  regiment  maintains  a  mess^  or  officers' 
club,  Avliich  forms  the  centre  of  social  intercourse  among 
the  officers,  and  affords  an  agreeable  meeting-place  after 
duties  have  been  attended  to. 

B. — NON-COMMISSIONED   OFFICERS 

]S"on- commissioned  or  under  officers  are  taken  from 
among  such  privates  as  have  distinguished  themselves  by 
close  attention  to  duty,  manly  and  honorable  bearing 
when  off  duty,  and  who  exhibit  military  qualities.  Their 
promotion  to  the  rank  of  officer  is  not  possible  in  times  of 
peace,  but  may  take  place  in  war  as  a  reward  for  excep- 
tional bravery. 

Only  after  a  term  of  service  as  high-privates  {Gefreiten) 
are  men  promoted  to  the  rank  of  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers. They  become  then  superiors  of  the  privates,  and 
must  be  saluted  b^^  them.  Non-commissioned  officers  are 
divided  into  two  classes,  those  with  and  those  without  the 
portepee  (silver  sword-knot).  The  former  class  comprises 
the  Feldwehel,  called  Wachmeister  in  the  mounted  troops, 
and  several  classes  of  officers  designated  bv  various  names, 
but  of  the  same  rank  and  with  the  same  functions.  The 
last  -  named  class  is  subdivided  into  sergeants,  under- 
wachmeisters,  and  under  -  officers  proper.  The  position 
of  the  Feldwebel  (sergeant  -  major)  is  a  highly  important 
one.  He  is  the  captain's  first  assistant  in  all  matters 
relating  to  the  internal  management  of  the  company, 
and  is  therefore  appropriately  called  the  "  mother  of  the 
company." 

It  is  the  good-fortune  of  the  German  army  to  possess 
in  its  non-commissioned  officers  an  abundance  of  material 
fully  competent  for  the  arduous   duties  assigned  them. 


THE   aEKMAN   ARMY   OF  TO-DAY  153 

Prince  Bismarck  gave  expression  to  this  fact  in  his  mem- 
orable speech  of  February  6,  1888,  when,  during  the  de- 
bate on  the  bill  providing  for  an  increase  of  the  army,  he 
said,  "We  have  sufficient  material  for  officers  and  under- 
officers  to  lead  the  army,  and  no  other  people  on  the  face 
of  the  earth  can  compare  with  us  in  this  respect."  This 
utterance  is  entirely  correct,  for  in  no  other  country  has 
education  so  thoroughly  permeated  such  large  masses  of 
the  people,  enabling  them  to  furnish  capable  commanders 
and  leaders  of  others,  either  as  officers  or  non-commis- 
sioned officers. 

In  a  financial  respect  it  may  be  said  that  the  non-com- 
missioned officers  are  adequately  provided  for,  although 
they  are  not  as  favorably  situated  as  the  same  class  in 
the  French  army.  In  addition  to  the  regular  pay,  which 
is  regulated  by  the  rank  and  the  length  of  service,  and 
which  in  the  case  of  the  Feldivebel  amounts  to  two  marks 
per  day,  an  allowance  is  granted  for  board.  All  non- 
commissioned officers  are  clothed  and  provided  with  quar- 
ters by  the  Government. 

C— PRIVATE    SOLDIERS 

The  complement  of  the  army  is  kept  up  by  the  enlist- 
ment of  recruits  drawn  every  year,  and  of  young  men 
entering  the  service  voluntarily.  The  drill  begins  imme- 
diately after  the  recruits  have  arrived  at  the  regiment — 
as  a  rule,  in  the  first  days  of  November.  After  a  few 
weeks  the  articles  of  war,  a  codification  of  the  most  im- 
portant duties  of  the  soldier  and  of  the  penalties  for  dere- 
lictions and  transgressions,  are  read  and  explained  to  the 
men,  whereupon  they  take  the  oath.  This  act  is  made  as 
solemn  as  possible ;  the  sacredness  and  importance  of  the 
oath  are  dwelt  upon  at  length,  and  the  recruits  swear 
that  they  will  faithfully  serve  their  supreme  commander 


154  THE   GERMxVN  ARMY   OF   TO-DAY 

and  obey  the  articles  of  war,  and  behave  hke  honorable 
and  faithful  soldiers. 

All  soldiers  are,  as  a  rule,  quartered  in  barracks  ;  rare- 
ly, and  only  in  very  small  garrisons,  in  rooms  rented  from 
private  citizens.  An  exception  is  made  during  the  time 
of  the  large  autumn  manoeuvres,  or  field  exercises,  when 
the  troops  are  practically  in  the  field.  Everything  that 
can  be  thought  of  is  done  to  provide  healthy  and  com- 
fortable quarters  and  good  substantial  food.  The  food  is 
prepared  in  the  barrack  kitchens,  or  menage^  under  the 
supervision  of  an  officer,  and  consists  of  coffee  for  break- 
fast, meat  and  vegetables  for  dinner,  coffee  in  the  after- 
noon, and  frequently  a  warm  supper.  To  cover  the  ex- 
pense, the  Government  allows  a  certain  amount,  varying 
according  to  the  price  of  provisions  ruling  in  the  different 
garrisons,  between  12  and  18  pfennings  per  day  for  each 
soldier,  and  124^  pfennings  are  deducted  from  the  pay  of 
the  men.  Their  pay  amounts  to  30  pfennings  daily,  and 
is  handed  to  them  three  times  a  month.  In  addition,  the 
soldier  is  entitled  to  about  1|  pounds  of  bread  per  day. 

In  order  to  preserve  the  mental  and  physical  vigor  of 
the  men,  the  duties  are  regulated  in  a  way  to  afford  con- 
stant variety  and  change  of  occupation.  The  training  is 
not  confined  to  the  mere  drill,  and  ^^urely  military  pro- 
ficiency is  not  the  only  object  aimed  at.  On  the  con- 
trary, the  principal  duty  of  the  officer  is  to  transform  the 
raw  and  ignorant  recruit  into  a  perfect  man ;  while  the 
soldier  must  learn  to  see  in  his  superior  a  man  whom  he 
can  follow  unhesitatingly,  and  with  unlimited  confidence, 
who  will  not  ask  more  of  him  than  is  absolutely  necessary, 
and  who  will  care  for  his  welfare  to  the  fullest  extent  of 
his  ability  in  every  respect.  It  is  strictly  forbidden  to 
submit  soldiers  to  a  treatment  tending  to  degrade  them 
or  to  hurt  their  feelings,  and  violations  of  this  rule  are 


J-  .\.~-'"  ^.j  ■ 


GRENADIERS    OF   THE    GUARD 


^^s^^^ 


0?  THE 


^ 


THE  GERMAN  ARMY   OF  TO-DAY  157 

punished  severely,  without  the  shghtest  regard  for  the 
])erson  of  the  offender. 

Ambitious  soldiers  are  given  an  opportunity'  to  perfect 
their  education  in  many  ways.  In  evening  schools  in- 
struction is  given  in  the  elementary  sciences;  in  other 
schools,  '•  capitulants,"  that  is,  men  who  have  signified 
their  intention  to  re-enlist,  are  instructed  in  a  more  ad- 
vanced course,  as  well  as  in  the  theoretical  and  practical 
use  and  the  construction  of  fire  and  small  arms. 

A  great  many  of  the  men  honorably  discharged  join 
veteran  associations,  or  *•'  Kriegervereine,"  whose  aim  is  to 
preserve  among  their  members  military  sentiments  and 
good-fellowship,  and  to  assist  comrades  in  distress  caused 
by  sickness  or  misfortune.  These  associations  are  now 
existing  in  ever}^  part  of  Germany,  and  are  united  to  dis- 
trict associations,  as  ''protectors"  of  wMch,  princes  or 
other  persons  of  exalted  position  officiate.  The  member- 
ship is  growing  constantly,  and  may  at  present  be  esti- 
mated at  not  less  than  500,000  men. 

In  conclusion  it  may  be  mentioned  that  all  persons  in 
active  service  are  prohibited  from  voting  and  partici- 
pating in  political  agitation ;  the  same  rule  applies  to  all 
reservists  for  the  time  during  which  they  are  attached  to 
troops  for  the  purpose  of  finishing  their  practice  drills. 

VIII. —THE  ARMY   ON   A  WAR  FOOTING 

The  work  of  placing  the  army  from  the  peace  organiza- 
tion on  a  war  footing  is  called  mobilization.  It  must  be 
performed  and  finished  within  a  given  number  of  days. 
The  order  to  mobilize  issues  from  the  Emperor,  and  is 
made  known  forthwith  to  all  military  and  civil  authori- 
ties, as  well  as  to  the  people,  the  former  being  notified  by 
telegraph.     A  mobilization  affects  not  only  pubhc  life, 


158  THE  GERMAN  ARMY   OF   TO-DAY 

but  the  business  and  professional  relations  of  every  indi- 
vidual.  From  the  moment  the  order  is  given,  a  spirited 
and  Avell-directed  activity  is  displayed  by  every  troop  to 
get  ready  in  time,  everybody  knowing  beforehand  Avhat 
is  required  of  him  in  this  emergency.  The  first  step  to 
be  taken  is  to  call  in  the  reserves,  in  order  to  fill  up  the 
ranks  of  the  standing  army  and  to  form  new  troops. 
This  is  done  by  written  summonses  issued  from  headquar- 
ters of  the  district  commanders.  These  summonses  are 
kept  always  ready,  and  every  man  liable  to  service  in  the 
army  or  navy  is  pledged  to  heed  them  without  delay. 
At  the  same  time  the  levy  of  horses  is  begun,  of  which 
there  is  a  very  considerable  number  required  for  the  train, 
for  mounting  officers  and  military  officials,  and  for  the 
formation  of  new  troops.  All  measures  connected  with  a 
mobilization  are  mapped  out  in  every  detail  during  peace- 
time, the  army  being  practically  prepared  for  this  change 
at  any  time. 

The  organization  of  a  mobilized  army  corps  is  similar  to 
that  in  peace.  The  additional  formations  are  independent 
cavalry  divisions,  composed  of  a  number  of  cavalry  regi- 
ments withdrawn  from  the  regular  divisions ;  also  reserve 
divisions  and  depot  and  Landwehr  formations  of  every 
kind.  The  duty  of  the  latter  is  to  maintain  the  active 
army  at  full  strength,  and  to  garrison  places  at  home  as 
well  as  on  or  near  the  seat  of  war.  The  army  corps  is 
further  replenished  by  its  allotment  of  train  columns  and 
sanitary  detachments.  The  artillery  of  the  army  corps  is 
partly  distributed  among  the  divisions,  partly  used  in  the 
formation  of  a  corps  artillery,  which  is  placed  under  the 
independent  command  of  a  general.  The  pioneer  battalion 
is  broken  up,  and  the  several  companies  are  detached  to 
the  divisions.  Additional  formations  are  finally  required 
for  the  mail,  telegra])h,  balloon,  and  railway  service. 


THE  GERMAN   ARMY   OF   TO-DAY  ISQ 

At  the  head  of  the  entire  German  army  is  the  Emperor. 
From  army  corps  and  cavalry  divisions  armies  are  formed 
and  phiced  under  special  command  and  administration. 
As  soon  as  the  army  moves,  the  etajyjJ^n.  are  organized  for 
the  purpose  of  keeping  up  connection  with  the  rear,  if 
possible  by  railways. 

IX.— THE  ARMY  EXPENSES 

Since  the  close  of  the  war  of  ISTU-Tl  there  have  been 
several  causes  for  increasing  the  army  expenses,  among 
them  the  increase  of  the  peace  strength  of  the  army,  the 
armament  of  the  infantry  with  new  rifles,  the  supply  of 
ammunition  and  the  new  artillery  material,  erection  of 
fortifications  and  army  buildings,  so  that  the  army  appro- 
priation in  the  imperial  budget  of  1890-91  (the  fiscal  year 
begins  on  the  1st  of  April  and  ends  on  the  31st  of  March) 
amounts  to  387  millions  of  marks  for  regular  or  contin- 
uous, and  296|^  millions  for  contingent  expenses.  For  the 
fiscal  year  of  1891-93  the  Eeichstag  has  been  asked  to  in- 
crease the  former  item  25^  millions,  while  a  reduction  in 
the  latter  to  the  amount  of  225^  millions  is  proposed. 

Although  these  figures  seem  high,  they  are  lower  than 
the  expense  of  the  standing  armies  of  France  and  Russia. 
The  following  table  shows  the  sums  appropriated  by  dif- 
ferent countries  for  army  purposes,  not  taking  into  ac- 
count any  extraordinary  and  annually  varying  contingent 
expenses,  for  the  year  1890,  resp.  1890-91 : 

Maik8. 

Germany 387,000.000 

Austro-Hungary 238,000,000 

France 445,000,000 

Russia 533,000,000 

Italy 206,500,000 

Great  Britain ,.  347,200,000 

United  States  of  North  America , 190,000,000 


160  THE  GERMAN  ARMY  OF  TO-DAY 

The  expenses  for  the  army  have  often  been  character- 
ized as  of  the  unproductive  kind,  but  this  can  hardly  be 
applied  to  a  State  which  by  its  geographical  position  may 
be  entangled  into  war  almost  at  any  time.  Past  history 
has  proved  that  an  unlucky  war  has  caused  far  greater 
sacrifices  than  the  maintenance  of  an  army  which  is 
read}^  to  contend  with  any  opponent. 

The  army  represents  not  only  the  people  in  arms,  but 
it  is  also  an  educational  institution,  in  which,  in  addition 
to  mental  and  physical  development,  the  male  youth  are 
taught  the  virtues  of  patriotism,  obedience,  and  a  sense  of 
duty  very  beneficial  to  them  in  after-life.  The  army, 
therefore,  possesses  also  from  an  ethic  point  of  view  an 
importance  which  cannot  be  overrated. 


THE  FRENCH  ARMY 


H,  my  brunettes  !  Eh  !  You  are  doing 
no  work  there.  That  does  not  help 
on  the  mowing  to  stretch  out  your 
necks  and  strain  your  eyes  to  see  if 
there  are  any  husbands  growing  in 
the  3"oung  wheat." 

Two  fine  girls,  tiptoe  on  the  points  of 
the  wooden  shoes,  clinging  like  goats  to 
the  branches  of  the  green  hedge,  re- 
plied, gayly  : 

"  We  are  not  losing  our  time  perhaps 
after  all,  Maitre  Durevoix ;  the  regiment 
is  coming  back  from  the  manoeuvres ;  it 
will  be  passing  here  in  a  few  minutes. 
Come  and  see." 
Maitre  Durevoix  approached,  followed  by  all  the  work- 
men.   Each  one,  leaning  on  his  rake,  his  fork,  or  his  scythe, 
scanned  the  valley. 

"  I  see  nothing,"  said  one.  "Where  is  the  regiment?"  ask- 
ed his  neighbor.  "  The  brunettes  are  making  fools  of  us," 
cried  a  third.  "  What !  Why,  it  is  passing  at  the  bottom 
of  the  hill  along  the  new  road ;  you  can  see  it  through  the 
trees."  "  There's  a  patrol  on  the  hill -top  close  by  us." 
"  True."  "  There's  another  by  the  river,  and  another  by 
the  ruined  house.  When  the  troop  is  on  the  march  it 
places  scouts  all  around  it,  as  if  it  were  going  to  meet  the 
enemv  at  anv  moment."  "Ah!  now  thev  are  leavino^  the 
road,  wheeling  round  the  burnt  field.     They  don't  have  to 


164  THE   FRENCH   ARMY 

ask  their  way.  The  officers  all  have  papers  in  their  hands. 
They  look  at  them,  and  then  they  know  the  way  better 
than  we  do.    Yes,  sure.    Ask  Kemy,  who  has  been  a  soldier. 

"  That's  true,"  said  the  mower  questioned.  "  In  my  time, 
before  the  fatal  war,  we  knew  nothing  about  those  matters. 
We  went  through  the  regular  drill,  target  practice,  and 
marching,  without  ever  thinking  of  war.  Nowadays  the 
army  is  always  thinking  of  war,  and  learning  how  to  make 
war  in  the  best  way.  Formerly  \ve  soldiers  did  not  know 
anything.  Now  the  law  obliges  us  to  send  our  children  to 
school,  and  when  they  have  learned  their  book  they  will 
become  finer  soldiers  than  we  were." 

"  So  much  the  better,"  replied  Maitre  Durevoix  ;  "and 
now  to  work,  and  sharply." 

"  Oh,  one  minute  more,  patron  /"  cried  the  girls.  "  They 
will  pass  close  by  here.  We  shall  see  them  splendidly. 
Who  knows  ?  Perhaps  we  shall  see  our  future  husbands 
in  the  ranks." 

"Ah!  then  there  are  none  but  soldiers  to  make  hus- 
bands?" 

"  Certainly,  7J>«/;'(9?i.  One  can't  marry  a  man  who  has 
not  been  a  soldier.  At  any  rate,  I  would  not."  "  Nor  I." 
"  Nor  I,"  cried  all  the  girls. 

"Let  us  fetch  our  pitchers ;  we  will  give  to  drink  to  some 
of  the  men  ;  it  is  so  hot." 

"  And  they  have  to  work  so  hard.  This  morning  they 
started  out  before  daybreak,  and  they  will  not  get  home 
until  after  sundown," 

"  They  must  be  tired." 

"  No.  They  are  accustomed  to  these  long  marches.  Look 
how  quickly  they  go.  They  don't  look  as  if  they  were 
tired." 

The  regiment  advanced  smartly.  It  was  not  a  simple 
march,  but  a  manoeuvre ;  step  correct,  easy  bearing,  rapid 


CUIRASSIERS 


^^-^^ 


O?  THE 


[USIVER 


;iT7i 


THE  FRENCH  ARMY  167 

pace,  the  different  movements  effected  with  precision,  with- 
out noise,  and  without  a  Avord  spoken.  Neither  bugles  nor 
drums  ;  from  time  to  time  a  whistle.  Absolute  silence  in 
the  ranks  ;  no  talking,  no  singing,  no  joking. 

Eemy,  the  mower,  noticed  this.  "  In  my  time,"  he  said, 
"  we  used  to  leave  behind  a  lot  of  weak  and  lame  ;  now 
there  are  no  laggards ;  all  are  hardened.  We  used  to  make 
a  terrible  noise  ;  you  could  hear  us  long  before  you  could 
see  us.  The  general  commanding  yonder  men  will  have 
no  nonsense.  He  has  said  no  laggards,  no  chatterers,  and 
there  are  none.  Who  would  have  thought  that  Gascons 
could  be  made  to  march  like  mountaineers  ?  Who  would 
have  believed  that  they  could  be  prevented  from  talk- 
ing? Well,  you  see,  they  march  and  they  don't  talk, 
and  nobody  complains.  Men  and  ideas  have  changed,  I 
can  tell  you." 

Indeed,  since  the  war  of  1870  things  have  been  greatly 
modified  in  the  army.  The  country  people  are  not  alone 
in  remarking  the  progress  made.  More  expert  and  less 
kindly  disposed  critics  abroad  have  noticed  it  too. 


II 

They  are  right.  A  new  era  has  begun.  Formerly  men 
built  temples  to  a  Fortune  whose  eyes  were  blindfolded. 
They  waited  for  Fortune  to  pass,  trusting  to  boldness, 
luck,  or  hazard.  Now  it  is  different.  Materially,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  perfected  instruments  ;  spiritually,  it  is 
necessary  to  have  complete  instruction.  We  are  endeav- 
oring in  France  to  acquire  both. 

The  second  Saturday  of  the  month  used  to  be  the  day 
of  the  fortnightly  lecture.  All  the  officers  of  the  175th 
regiment  of  infantry  assembled  in  the  lecture-room  of  the 


168  THE  FRENCH  ARMY 

barracks  of  Fontenay,  and  the  colonel  called  upon  Com- 
mander Typaud  to  deliver  his  address.  Typaud,  a  young 
major,  or  clief  de  hataillon,  personifying  the  new  army,  a 
brilliant  pupil  of  the  Ecole  superieure  de  Guerre,  endowed 
with  fine  physical  and  moral  qualities,  had  distinguished 
himself  in  the  Tunisian  expedition.  Having  knowledge  and 
activity  at  the  same  time,  he  was  a  thorough  officer,  and  of 
great  promise.  His  lecture  was  impatiently  looked  forward 
to,  the  more  so  as  the  title  was,  "Reorganization  after  De- 
feat," a  palpitating  subject,  and  one  worthy  of  the  orator. 

The  major's  discourse  might  be  resumed  as  follows. 
After  the  battle  of  Cannae  the  Roman  Senate  went  out  to 
meet  the  defeated  consul,  and  thanked  him  for  not  having 
despaired  of  the  safety  of  the  republic.  This  is  a  fine 
lesson,  a  noble  example  to  meditate  upon.  Recriminations 
in  misfortune  mean  discouragement  and  the  end  of  every- 
thing ;  whereas  dignified  resignation  is  the  germ  of  re- 
suscitation, for  it  is  hope  itself.  Difficult  to  eradicate  in 
a  warlike  nation  that  has  known  both  victories  and  re- 
verses, the  hope  of  a  better  future  is  a  vital  and  regenerat- 
ing force,  a  lever  of  incomprehensible  power.  Confidence 
is  another  thing.  Defeat  leaves  after  it,  like  foul  mud, 
a  dissolvent  impression,  a  sort  of  moral  depression,  an  in- 
stinctive sentiment  of  diminution  and  of  mistrust.  Men 
doubt  their  strength.  They  hope,  and  at  the  same  time 
seek  serious  motives  and  solid  bases  for  their  hope,  but 
they  do  not  find  them  at  once.  It  is  the  work  of  labor, 
of  energetic  efforts,  of  time,  and,  above  all,  of  acts.  They 
have  to  make  essays  and  try  themselves  before  entering 
upon  great  struggles. 

To  reconstitute  the  materiel,  to  reform  old  institutions, 
to  renew  things,  is  merely  a  question  of  money ;  but  to 
reconstitute  the  moral  of  a  country  is  a  more  difficult  task 
than  to  reorganize  its  army.    Heroic  deeds  are  indispensa- 


THE  FRENCH   ARMY  169 

ble.  The  words  "victory,"  "success,"  must  come  to  make 
the  patriotic  fibre  vibrate  and  palpitate.  Small  triumphs 
are  necessary  to  serve  as  a  preface  to  the  future,  and  from 
small  things  to  great,  men  must  be  able  to  reason,  to  con- 
clude to  a  probability,  to  half  see  a  possibility,  to  feel  some- 
thing almost  as  good  as  a '  certainty.  This  was  the  way 
Prussia  proceeded.  Pulverized  at  Jena,  invaded  in  a  cam- 
paign of  a  few  days,  dismembered  at  Tilsit,  almost  wiped 
out  of  the  map  of  Europe,  she  did  not  despair ;  she  set  to 
work  and  patiently  reorganized  herself. 

For  a  long  time  Prussia  collected  herself  in  silence. 
She  studied  war,  but  she  did  not  possess  a  single  officer 
who  had  seen  war.  She  was  obliged  to  act  in  order  to 
avoid  atrophy.  She  re-entered  the  movement  in  184S, 
forty -two  years  after  Jena,  and  supported  Holstein  against 
Denmark.  It  was  a  paltry  war,  with  varied  alternatives, 
without  great  glory,  but  very  useful  so  far  as  practical 
improvement  was  concerned.  In  1859,  at  the  news  of  the 
first  successes  of  the  French  in  Italy,  the  Prussians  mob- 
ilized three  army  corps ;  then  three  others  after  Magenta ; 
and,  finally,  all  the  federal  contingents  after  Solferino. 
Although  the  peace  rendered  these  preparations  useless 
as  warfare,  they  nevertheless  constituted  a  veritable  dress 
rehearsal  or  essav  of  mobilization.  In  1861  the  reio-n  of 
William  I.  opens  by  the  reorganization  of  the  army  and 
serious  preparations  for  war. 

Having  thus  completed  her  programme,  comprising  the 
military  reorganization  of  the  nation,  essays  in  war,  essays 
in  mobilization,  realization  of  notable  improvements,  Prus- 
sia found  herself  ready;  and  judging  from  the  carelessness 
of  other  nations  that  she  could  dare  a  good  deal,  she  be- 
gan to  unmask  her  projects.  ]Srevertheless,  carrying  pru- 
dence to  its  last  limits,  she  would  not  yet  venture  single- 
handed  on  a  campaign.     In  1864  she  joined  with  Austria 


170 


THE  FRENCH  ARMY 


to  crush  Denmark,  and 
in  1866  she  demanded 
the  aid  of  Italy  in  order 
to  overthrow  Austria. 
These  successive  trials 
gave  her  confidence,  and 
being  thoroughly  pre- 
pared, she  felt  herself 
equal  to  fighting  France, 
whom  she  surprised  be- 
fore the  necessary  meas- 
ures could  be  taken  by 
the  latter. 

All  this  was  rational. 
After  the  invasions  of 
1814  and  1815,  the  logic 
of  facts  led  France  to 
proceed  in  the  same 
manner.  The  year  1823 
saw  an  army  march  to 
help  the  Spanish  Gov- 
ernment, enter  Madrid 
unresisted,  and  push  on  as  far  as  Cadiz,  where  the  brilliant 
affair  of  the  Trocadero  peninsula  terminated  the  war.  In 
1827  France  took  up  the  defence  of  Greece  against  Turk- 
ish oppression.  An  expedition  started  for  the  Levant. 
The  capture  of  the  castle  of  the  Morea  and  the  naval  bat- 
tle of  Navarino  were  successes  big  with  consequences. 

Such  were  the  forerunners  of  the  military  renovation 
at  that  epoch,  which  soon  asserted  itself  brilliantly  in  the 
battle  of  Staoueli  and  the  capture  of  Algiers,  July  4,  1830. 
What  changes  in  less  than  fifteen  years !.  Iberia  restored 
to  liberty,  Hellas  independent.  Christian  slavery  in  Africa 
destroyed,  the   Mediterranean   freed   from   the   Barbary 


A    GENDARME 


THE  FRENCH   ARMY  171 

pirates  and  opened  to  the  commerce  of  all  nations — such 
was  the  glorious  work  that  France  had  accomplished  be- 
fore the  eyes  of  astonished  Europe.  Trocadero,  Morea, 
Navarino,  Staoueli,  Algiers,  were  names  that  re-echoed 
everywhere.  The  army  that  had  been  annihilated  at 
Waterloo  by  the  effort  of  the  allies  won  back  by  these 
triumphs  its  old  renown,  recovered  the  first  military  rank, 
and  preserved  it  for  forty  years. 

This  fine  period  was  followed  by  the  reverses  of  IS  TO. 
France  imposed  upon  herself  the  heaviest  sacrifices  in  or- 
der to  prolong  the  struggle.  In  this  gigantic  combat,  sus- 
tained without  warning  against  a  well-prepared  enemy, 
she  astonished  the  world  by  her  obstinate  resistance,  and 
so  saved  her  honor.  Hope  rose  above  the  trial.  Disasters 
were  not  unknown  to  France ;  often  she  had  been  invaded, 
but,  like  Antfeus,  as  she  fell  she  recovered  strength  and 
rose  again.  What  she  had  done  in  the  past  she  could  do 
in  the  future,  and  this  conviction  sustained  her  in  the 
darkest  days.  Without  hesitating,  she  set  to  work  and 
rapidly  reorganized  her  army.  Excessive  expense,  inces- 
sant labor,  universal  effort — nothing  was  spared  in  this 
work  of  patriotic  reconstruction. 

In  these  circumstances  some  saw  salvation  only  in  ex- 
treme prudence.  Doubting  the  vitality  of  the  country, 
thev  advocated  absolute  abstention,  concentration  at  home, 
a  horizon  restricted  to  the  narrowest  limits,  the  renuncia- 
tion of  all  influence  abroad.  They  forgot  both  history  and 
logic.  They  did  not  see  that  the  absorption  of  a  country 
in  one  single  thought  is  equivalent  to  effacement,  isolation, 
decadence.  Anaesthesia  prevents  suffering,  but  it  is  of  no 
avail  to  regenerate.  To  await  in  inactivity  and  oblivion 
the  propitious  hour  of  revenge  would  mean  the  certainty 
of  never  seeing  that  hour ;  it  would  amount  to  bankruptcy 
in  the  future,  to  suicide  by  atrophy.    After  great  reverses 


172  THE  FRENCH  ARMY 

great  enterprises  cannot  be  faced  without  prelude,  without 
having  made  the  army  smell  powder  and  try  its  strength 
in  engagements  of  less  importance.  Such  was  the  conduct 
of  Prussia  after  1800 ;  such  the  conduct  of  France  after 
1815.  The  method  is  always  the  same  ;  there  is  no  other 
method  but  this  one.  Happily  France  counted  not  only 
meditative  and  hypnotized  citizens ;  she  still  had  many 
men  of  action  who  realized  the  worth  of  a  few  acts  of 
warfare  in  restoring  confidence.  Circumstances  aided  these 
latter.  The  repression  of  the  insurrection  in  Algeria  in  1871 
proved  that  the  army  had  not  lost  its  qualities.  Work  and 
reforms  gave  it  new  qualities,  and  when  there  arose  in  1874 
and  1875  eventualities  of  war,  the  French  army,  if  not 
quite  ready,  was  at  any  rate  very  well  able  to  present  it- 
self respectably  in  line. 

Africa  was  again  the  land  of  practical  renovation.  Va- 
rious movements  in  1876  and  1879  necessitated  expeditions. 
The  rising  of  the  Oulad  Sidi  Scheikh  under  Bou  Amema 
led  to  the  war  in  the  south  Oranais.  After  a  long  and 
painful  campaign  the  rebels  were  definitively  crushed  in 
the  battle  of  Oued  Fendi,  south  of  Figuig. 

IVniitary  affairs  then  resumed  hold  of  opinion,  the  more 
so  as  at  that  moment  the  Tunisian  events  began  to  de- 
velop. In  April,  1881,  the  borderers  redoubled  their  ag- 
gressions, and  the  Tunisian  Government  was  powerless  to 
repress  them.  The  French  columns  penetrated  into  the 
thick  of  the  Khoumirs,  and  the  Bey  having  accepted  the 
support  of  France,  our  troops  accomplished  the  pacifica- 
tion of  the  whole  of  Tunisia.  To  the  popular  names  of 
Mouzaia,  Isly,  and  Taguin  were  added  those  of  Bizerta, 
where  Hamilcar  fought,  of  Zama,  rendered  famous  by 
Scipio,  of  Kerouan,  the  sacred  city  of  the  Khalifs.  This 
brilliant  and  rapid  campaign  struck  imaginations  and  re- 
vived memories  of  the  glorious  periods  of  the  past. 


THE  FRENCH   ARMY 


173 


The  deception  was  therefore  all  the  more  acute  in  July, 
1882,  when  the  French  Government  did  not  think  proper 
to  intervene  in  Egypt  in  concert  with  the  English.  The 
following  year  the  death  of  Commander  Kiviere  led  to  the 
Tonkin  expedition.  Hanoi,  Son  Tay,  the  heroic  defence 
of  Tuyen  Kuan,  Foutcheou,  saw  our  troops  victorious  in 
the  far  East.  Indo  -  China  was  created.  In  Senegal  a 
J'rench  expedition  founded  the  fort  of  Bamakou,  on  the 
Niger.  At  the  same  time  our  navy  took  possession  of  the 
Bay  of  Majunga  and  of  the  port  of  Tametave,  and  assured 
our  preponderance  in  Madagascar.  Fine  pages  of  military 
history;  smiles  of  victory;  three  protectorates  founded, 
thus  increasing  the  national  territory.  Everywhere  great 
difficulties  were  surmounted ;  volunteers  in  large  numbers ; 
zeal,  devotion,  endurance.  Each  of  these  expeditions 
showed  the  army  to  be  excellent.     It  had  plenty  of  men, 


SPA  HIS 


1V4  THE  FRENCH  ARMY 

fine  arms,  first-class  materiel.  It  could  make  a  good  fig- 
ure against  any  enemy  whatever.  Hence  confidence  lias 
been  restored.  From  the  army,  always  in  progress,  it  has 
extended  to  the  nation.  And  this  confidence  is  justifia- 
ble, because  it  is  not  a  thing  of  chance,  but  has  sprung 
from  the  efforts  of  all,  and  imposed  itself  little  by  little. 
The  lost  materiel  has  been  replaced.  The  blood  shed  has 
been  renewed.  The  father-land  has  recovered  its  serenity, 
and  although  still  suffering  from  the  amputation  of  its  be- 
loved province,  it  looks  out  calmly  upon  the  future.  Trust- 
ing in  itself  and  in  its  army,  it  eyes  proudly  the  Teuton 
who  threw  it  by  surprise. 

France  is  still  the  Velleda  cherished  by  her  children ; 
the  immortal  Gaulish  prophetess  adored  by  her  warriors ; 
often  vanquished,  but  never  killed,  retiring  to  bind  up  her 
wounds  in  the  depths  of  her  great  forests,  and  reappearing 
again  radiant  with  fresh  youth.  After  the  disaster  of 
Rosbach  she  contemplated  Jena ;  after  the  woes  of  Sedan 
she  Avill  have,  if  it  please  God,  the  joy  of  another  Jena. 
The  duel  is  not  yet  ended,  but  at  the  next  o^'j^rise  the  en- 
gagement will  no  longer  be  unequal.  The  sons  of  Yelleda 
remember,  and  others  will  remember  too. 


Ill 

By  contact  with  misfortune  characters  have  been  steeled. 
The  instruction  of  the  French  army  has  been  develoi^ed, 
and  even  its  amusements  have  become  more  serious,  and 
those  "which  necessitate  exercises  useful  in  warfare,  such 
as  drag  hunts,  raids,  and  "  rally-papier,"  or  paper  chases, 
are  very  popular.  A  brilliant  example  was  recently  seen 
in  Brittany.  In  the  middle  of  the  trees  the  polygon  of 
Rennes,  with  its  hawthorn  hedge  in  bloom,  looked  like  an 


A    ZOUATE 


immense  Coliseum  of  verdure.  The  study  batteries  and 
the  hill  offered  to  the  crowd  every  facility  for  viewing 
the  marvellous  panorama  formed  by  the  Kiver  Yilaine, 
winding-  through  the  meadows  striped  with  lines  of  tall 
poplar-trees,  the  woods  of  the  domain  of  La  Prevalaye, 
the  town  of  Rennes  rising  up  the  hill-side  terrace  wise, 
and  dominated  by  the  incomparable  promenade  of  Thabor. 
The  plateau  on  the  top  of  the  hill  was  the  best  spot  whence 
to  watch  the  incidents  of  the  paper  chase,  and  so  it  was 
occupied  by  all  the  notabilities  of  the  district.  A  crowd, 
too,  was  gathered  round  the  huntsmen  at  the  starting- 
point,  fixed  in  a  clearing  of  the  woods  of  the  old  Chateau 
de  la  Fresloniere,  whence  issued  the  sounds  of  the  hunt- 
ing-horns announcing  le  lancier.     The  expectation  is  in- 


176  THE  FRENCH   ARMY 

tense.  At  last  the  signal  is  given ;  all  the  horsemen  go 
away  at  a  gallop  along  the  avenues  and  roads,  following 
the  track  indicated  by  the  scraps  of  paper.  When  they 
get  out  of  the  wood  they  see  the  "  stag."  He  has  made  a 
wide  double,  and  is  already  near  the  bridge  over  the  Yi- 
laine.  All  the  troop  dash  into  the  meadows,  putting  to 
flight  a  herd  of  heifers  astounded  by  this  sudden  invasion. 
The  bridge  crossed,  the  huntsmen  enter  the  domain  of  La 
Prevalaye.  The  horns  sound  the  hien-aller,  and  the  echoes 
reach  the  polygon,  where  the  crowed  watches  eagerly,  with 
its  race -glasses  fixed  in  the  direction  of  the  old  manor- 
house,  whose  pointed  gables  emerge  from  the  midst  of  the 
trees.  A  fault  cleverly  prepared  by  the  "  stag"  leads  the 
huntsmen  off  the  track  towards  a  decayed  old  oak-tree, 
under  wdiich  Henri  IV.  is  said  to  have  sat ;  they  have  to 
return  in  a  direction  almost  diametrically  opposite,  and 
then  turn  to  gain  the  polygon.  Their  zigzags  in  the  broad 
avenues  of  the  park,  and  the  leaping  over  ditches  and 
hedges  that  enclose  the  rich  meadows,  are  all  visible  to 
the  spectators,  who  can  distinguish  through  the  trees  the 
dashing  company  of  officers  in  varied  uniforms,  with  here 
and  there  the  red  coat  or  the  black  jacket  of  a  civilian. 
They  get  nearer,  and  finally  they  enter  the  polygon,  bend- 
ing forward  over  their  foaming  horses.  When  the  hunts- 
men feel  that  the  eyes  of  the  ladies  are  upon  them  their 
animation  redoubles ;  their  horses  bound  forward  respon- 
sive to  the  spur;  the  jumps  arranged  around  the  hill  are 
cleared  with  ease  and  style;  and  the  splendid  finish  is 
greeted  with  bravos  and  hurrahs  as  the  horsemen  pull  up 
and  salute  the  company. 

The  paper  chase  is  over,  but  the  day  is  not  yet  finished. 
The  ladies  know  very  well  that  the  officers  are  not  going 
to  rest,  and  that  they  themselves  have  not  come  merely  to 
look  on,  but  also  in  the  hope  of  having  a  dance  after. 


THE  FRENCH   ARMY 


177 


All  the  carriages  laden  with  sight-seers  are  drawn  up 
in  line  along  one  side  of  the  polygon.  The  huntsmen,  in 
ranks  of  six  abreast,  defile  past  the  company  and  dismount 
at  the  extremity  of  the  line,  wdien  all  the  carriages  follow 
them.  The  officers  then  conduct  the  ladies  into  a  little 
wood,  where  a  delicate  lunch  has  been  prepared,  A  mili- 
tary band  plays,  and  after  a  few  overtures  it  strikes  up 
dance  music.  A  closely-mown  lawn  is  ready  hard  by ;  the 
officers  are  not  tired,  the  ladies  are  not  tired  either,  and  in 
a  few  seconds  the  ball  is  in  full  swing,  and  lasts  until  the 
dinner -hour  and  the  approach  of  night  w^arn  the  gay 
waltzers  that  they  must  go  home,  and  that  the  charming 
fete  must  come  to  an  end. 


IV 


Pleasure,  however,  does  not  interfere  with  work.  After 
a  day's  amusement  each  one  feels  all  the  more  zealous  in 
his  service.     The  recruits  have  just  joined  the  regiment. 


^v^^V 


CHASSEURS    T>  AKKIQL'E 


178  THE  FRENCH   ARMY 

The  pessimists  are  in  despair.  Tlie  contingent  seems  to 
them  to  be  very  mediocre.  It  is  the  same  story  every 
year.  Going  back  to  the  old  days  in  Africa  and  the 
Crimea,  they  vaunt  those  vigorous  generations  which 
braved  everything  —  danger,  climate,  privation.  The 
young  armies  of  the  terriljle  war  of  1870  were  not  bad 
either.  Improvised,  badly  trained,  badly  armed,  poorly 
officered,  always  in  presence  of  an  enemy  superior  in  num- 
ber, they  nevertheless  managed  to  make  a  good  figure 
during  that  rigorous  winter,  when  they  were  incessantly 
beaten  and  yet  always  resisted. 

The  troops  of  to-day  will  be  just  as  good.  The  soldier 
has  changed ;  that  is  incontestable ;  but  he  has  preserved 
his  essential  qualities.  His  carelessness,  his  "  chaff " — 
which  foreigners  sometimes  mistake  for  indiscipline — con- 
sole and  sustain  him  in  the  hour  of  trial,  and  render  him 
well  fitted  to  endure  privations.  The  retreat  from  Mos- 
cow, the  siege  of  Sebastopol,  the  siege  of  Metz,  the  expe- 
ditions in  Asia,  Africa,  and  Mexico,  have  all  borne  witness 
to  the  same  soliditj^,  the  same  endurance,  the  same  con- 
tempt of  danger,  and  indifference  to  the  hardness  of  cam- 
paign life,  the  same  zeal  and  pluck  ever  ready  to  manifest 
themselves. 

The  French  soldier  possesses  bravery,  the  legendary 
virtue  of  the  Gauls ;  his  spirit  is  warlike  rather  than  mili- 
tary. Our  endeavor  has  been  to  preserve  the  one  while 
developing  the  other ;  to  add  method  and  prudence  to  in- 
nate fancy  and  spirit  of  adventure.  Military  education  is 
the  great  preoccupation  of  the  modern  French  army,  and 
in  this  matter  the  subaltern  officer  is  the  most  precious 
agent. 

When  young  the  subaltern  is  a  little  light,  familiar,  and 
too  near  the  age  of  the  soldiers  under  his  orders.  When  he 
re-engages,  after  he  has  settled  down  and  won  his  medal, 


-^ 


i?€^= 


DRAGOONS    ARMED    WITH    LAXCES 


he  is  excellent,  and  possesses  a  considerable  situation  vis- 
a-vis the  recruit  or  the  reservist.  His  brusqueness  is  of 
the  right  sort ;  he  reprimands,  scolds,  and  punishes,  but 
he  does  not  abuse  the  men ;  still  less  does  he  strike  them. 
His  whole  being  is  a  picture  of  action  and  movement.  He 
joins  example  to  precept ;  he  demonstrates  and  he  exe- 
cutes. Athletic  in  form,  of  bronzed  complexion,  cleanly 
shaven,  with  heaw  mustaches,  a  long  mouche  under  his 


180  THE  FRENCH  ARMY 

lo\ver  lip,  his  dress  irreproachable,  his  phj^siognomy  is 
kindly,  his  aspect  serious,  and  he  rarely  lauglis. 

Such  was  the  appearance  of  Sergeant  Trevert  when  he 
was  instructing  the  newly  arrived  conscripts.  "All  your 
duties,"  he  used  to  say  to  them,  "  may  be  reduced  to  one, 
namely,  obedience.  Obedience  includes  all  the  others. 
Discipline  is  obedience.  It  is  ygyj  simple,  you  see.  To 
Avear  a  uniform,  handle  a  gun  properly,  put  a  bullet  in  the 
target — all  that  a  militiaman  can  do  as  well  as  a  soldier. 
But  a  soldier  is  a  different  thing  from  a  militiaman ;  he 
is  disciplined ;  that  is  to  say,  he  obeys ;  whereas  the  mili- 
tiaman criticises ;  there's  the  difference  between  them. 
When  I  tell  you  to  obey,  that  means  that  you  must  exe- 
cute an  order  at  a  word  or  a  sign,  and  divine  the  thoughts 
of  the  commander,  because  that  is  always  the  right  track. 
Obey,  and  never  make  reflections  ;  that,  young  conscripts, 
is  the  occiput  and  great  toe  of  discipline.  If  you  do  not 
understand  my  anatomical  comparison,  I  will  complete  it 
foi'  your  limited  intelligences  by  adding  that  it  is  the  be- 
ginning and  the  end  of  the  soldier's  business,  "When  I  or- 
der you  to  do  something,  you  need  not  understand.  Tre- 
vert speaks.  Trevert  knows  what  he  is  talking  about. 
Trevert  thinks  for  you.  xill  you  have  to  do  is  to  execute 
his  orders,  and  sharply.  Always  keep  your  eye  on  me, 
whether  in  a  manoeuvre  or  on  the  battle-field,  I  march, 
you  follow  me,  I  run,  you  run,  I  fall  down  wounded  .  .  . 
and  what  do  you  do  ?" 

"  We  pick  you  up." 

''  Nonsense  !  On  the  battle-field  we  do  not  stop  to  pick 
up  the  wounded.  You  continue  all  the  more  sharply ;  you 
go  on,  marching  over  me.  I  sliall  be  pleased  to  feel  how 
vigorously  you  are  going  along,  and  if  I  am  not  Idlled  out- 
right I  shall  shout  to  you,  '  Trample  on  me,  crush  me,  nom 
cfun  hleu,  but  charo-e  !'  " 


INFANTRY 


^'^•^  OP  TRR 

[UFI7EESIT71 


^/PORISJ^ 


THE  FRENCH  ARMY  183 

This  was  not  perhaps  academic  eloquence,  but  it  was 
nevertheless  eloquence  of  a  certain  sort,  warm  and  com- 
municative, because  it  was  sincere.  All  his  young  listen- 
ers, students,  tradespeople,  farmers,  were  stirred  by  this 
picturesque  and  often  incorrect  language,  always  frank, 
always  to  the  point,  and  always  exalting  duty.  A  sub- 
altern officer  well  educated  and  a  good  literary  speaker 
would  never  have  produced  such  an  effect. 

Sergeant  Trevert  thus  terminated  his  discourse  :  "  Here 
is  the  order  for  to-morrow.  At  nine  o'clock  review  of 
the  regiment ;  reception  of  the  newly  promoted  ;  presen- 
tation of  the  recruits  to  the  colors.  You  understand? 
Tr}^  and  furbish  3'ourselves  up  brand-new  from  head  to 
foot." 

The  men  who  have  just  come  to  the  regiment  are  dressed 
on  the  day  of  their  arrival,  and  set  to  work  the  next  day. 
They  do  not  take  part  in  the  manoeuvres  of  the  regiment 
until  the}^  are  in  a  condition  to  iigure  decently  under  arms. 
The  moment  when  they  are,  so  to  speak,  declared  soldiers 
is  that  when  they  are  presented  to  the  colors — an  old  cus- 
tom which  is  not  followed  everywhere,  and  which  has  an 
imposing  and  inspiring  character.  It  strikes  young  imag- 
inations, and  at  the  same  time  it  fills  with  emotion  the 
hearts  of  the  old  soldiers. 

In  order  that  evervthing  may  be  in  order,  the  men  sit 
up  late  and  rise  earlv,  busy  making  up  their  knapsacks, 
brushing  their  clothes,  polishing  their  accoutrements. 
Then  comes  the  examination  by  tlie  subalterns  and  the 
platoon  officers.  The  men  after  that  go  down  into  the 
drill-yard,  and  are  inspected  by  the  captain.  The  bat- 
talions are  then  set  in  line.  The  colonel  arrives.  The 
band  plays.  The  colonel  reviews  the  men  iji  detail. 
The  recruits  feel  their  hearts  thumping  when  they  see 
so  many  officers  examining  them  minutely.     The  officers 


184  THE  FRENCH   ARMY 

and  subaltern  officers  recently  appointed  are  recognized 
according  to  the  regulation  formulas.  Meanwhile  a  com- 
pany has  gone  to  fetch  the  flag,  which  advances  with  its 
escort,  and  stops  in  the  middle  of  the  court-yard  of  the 
barracks. 

The  drums  roll.  The  colonel  orders  the  presentation  of 
arms,  and  salutes  the  flag  with  his  sword.  Drums,  bugles, 
and  music  sound  the  order,  "  To  the  flag !"  All  the  old 
soldiers  of  the  regiment  who  have  a  decoration  or  a  medal 
go  and  take  their  place  around  the  colors.  The  newly 
promoted  officers  stand  in  front  of  them.  Then  the  colo- 
nel orders,  "  Shoulder  arms !  vanguard  in  open  order,"  and 
pronounces  the  formula  of  investiture  before  each  officer, 
strikes  him  on  the  shoulder  with  his  sword,  hands  him  the 
insignia  of  his  grade,  and  kisses  him. 

Then  he  orders  the  vanguard  to  close  its  ranks,  and  the 
guns  to  be  stacked. 

The  recruits,  without  arms,  then  come  and  stand  in 
a  semicircle  before  the  flag,  which  is  still  surrounded 
by  the  officers  and  the  soldiers  who  have  decorations  or 
medals. 

"  Soldiers,"  says  the  colonel,  "  in  your  towns,  in  your 
villages,  in  the  fields,  the  church-steeple  was  your  rally- 
ing-point.  Around  it  were  your  families,  your  homes, 
your  interests.  Here  the  colors  take  the  place  of  the 
steeple.  They  are  even  more ;  the  colors  are  the  image 
of  the  father-land  itself,  the  sign  of  honor,  the  symbol  of 
devotion  even  unto  death.  Proud  to  serve  them,  feeling 
honored  to  defend  them,  you  cannot  abandon  them  with- 
out becoming  cowardly  deserters,  traitors  to  your  country 
and  to  your  countrymen.  You  see  how  we  love  and  ven- 
erate our  national  colors.  Let  this  same  spirit  of  affection 
and  respect  henceforward  animate  3^ou,  and  in  all  circum- 
stances rally  always  to  the  cry,  Ate  drapeau/  au  dra- 


Ar.PINE    CHASSEUR 


>  O?  THE 

[USIVBRSITTJ 


THE   FKENCn   ARMY  187 

^eau  !  You  will  be  told  the  history  of  the  colors  and  the 
history  of  the  regiment  which  is  now  your  military  family. 
It  contains  already  many  tine  pages ;  try  by  your  valiant 
deeds  to  increase  the  number  of  those  pages." 

Then  each  captain  explains  to  his  men  the  signification 
of  the  flag.  Symbol  of  the  father-land,  it  remains  in  the 
middle  of  the  regiment.  Its  folds  speak.  What  words  ? 
On  one  side  "  valor  "  and  "  discipline,"  which  embrace  all 
the  duties  of  a  soldier ;  on  the  other,  the  names  of  the  bat- 
tles that  recall  all  his  souvenirs.  The  captains  mention 
the  brilliant  actions  in  which  the  regiment  has  been  dis- 
tinguished, the  losses  it  has  sustained — in  a  word,  its  whole 
history ;  and  when  this  record  is  ended,  the  men  take  up 
their  arms  and  march  past  the  colors,  saluting  them,  to 
the  sounds  of  the  regimental  march. 

The  presentation  to  the  colors  is  followed  by  their  ex- 
hibition in  the  salle  (Thonnew^  where  they  remain  all  day, 
with  a  guard  relieved  every  hour.  The  recruits,  guided 
by  their  subaltern  officers,  come  to  visit  them,  and  to  see 
the  room  where  are  displayed  all  the  souvenirs  of  the 
regiment — pictures,  portraits,  photographs,  relics,  busts, 
statues,  etc.  An  attempt  is  made  to  explain  to  them  all 
that  concerns  the  regiment,  and  to  give  them  a  high  idea 
of  the  military  family  to  which  they  henceforward  belong. 


It  is  not  easy  to  find  one's  way  without  a  guide  in  the 
Alpes  Maritimes.  A  company  of  tourists  more  venture- 
some than  prudent  discovered  that  not  long  ago.  They 
had  started  from  the  charming  inn  of  La  Girandola, 
perched  on  a  rock  on  the  banks  of  the  Roya,  and  intended 
to  climb  the  peak  of  Gonella,  in  order  to  get  a  view  of 


188  THE  FRENCH  ARMY 

the  high  ridges.  They  missed  their  way,  passed  the  point 
they  were  seelving,  and  continued  up  and  down,  ahnost  all 
the  time  through  woods,  until  at  last  fatigue  caused  them 
to  stop.  The  ladies  of  the  party  were  in  despair,  and  be- 
gan to  talk  of  dying  of  hunger  in  those  fearful  solitudes, 
when  the  notes  of  a  bugle  were  heard  in  the  distance. 
The  tourists  recognized  the  French  clairon^  which  is  much 
shriller  than  the  Italian  cornet,  and  advancing  in  the  di- 
rection of  the  sound,  they  were  soon  out  of  the  w^ood  and 
within  view  of  a  troop  on  the  march — a  battalion  of  clias- 
seurs  de  montagne,  with  gray  dolmans  and  trousers  and  leg- 
gings. As  they  advanced,  the  tourists  distinguished  clear- 
ly the  column  developing  its  spirals  on  the  side  of  a  steep 
spur,  mounting  from  the  depths  of  the  valley  of  Luceran 
towards  the  peak  of  La  Calmette.  On  a  point  to  the 
left  a  group  halted,  forming  the  vanguard ;  the  main  body 
of  the  troop  climbed  slowly,  followed  by  a  long  line  of 
mules. 

At  that  moment  the  firing  of  a  cannon  re-echoed  from 
rock  to  rock,  and  announced  the  beginning  of  the  attack. 
Little  by  little  all  the  battalion  got  footing  on  the  top  of 
the  spur,  deployed  on  this  difficult  ground,  and  advanced 
towards  the  principal  peak.  The  musketry  rattled,  backed 
up  by  the  thundering  of  the  artillery.  Lines  of  agile  foot- 
soldiers  rose  from  the  hollows  of  the  rocks,  from  the  midst 
of  the  bushes,  from  the  irregularities  of  the  ground,  showed 
themselves  for  a  moment,  then  disappeared,  and  kept  on 
advancing.  The  frightened  chamois,  surprised  by  these 
sounds  in  their  solitudes,  bounded  from  rock  to  rock. 
Their  wild  flight  will  carry  news  to  the  inhabitants  of 
the  Italian  slope,  who  have  a  proverb  saying,  "  When  the 
chamois  come  down  in  flight,  the  French  are  mounting 
on  the  heights." 

The  attack  continues.     The  noise  redoubles.     The  chas- 


TURCOS 


rxy^   OF  THE        -^ 

fUlflVBESITY] 


THE   FRENCH   ARMY  191 

seiirs  are  running  uj)  the  steep  slopes.  At  last  they  reach 
the  summit.     What  lungs !  what  legs  they  have ! 

Now  the  troops  halt,  assemble  together,  make  coffee, 
and  take  a  rest.  The  tired  tourists  join  them.  The  of- 
ficer in  command,  having  been  informed  of  their  misad- 
venture, promises  to  help  them. 

"  I  cannot  have  you  taken  back  to  the  plain  to-day," 
he  says  to  them.  "  You  will  have  to  stay  with  us  until 
to-morrow,  and  follow  us  to  our  camp  to-night." 

"  Oh,"  said  one  of  the  ladies,  "  that  is  impossible.  We 
cannot  walk  another  step." 

"Do  not  be  alarmed,  ladies,"  replied  the  officer.  ''Our 
pannier  mules  will  carry  you.  We  -will  put  you  up 
comfortably  in  the  bivouac;  and  to-morrow  we  will 
go  down  to  La  BoUene,  where  you  will  find  carriages  for 
Nice." 

The  proposition  was  promptly  accepted.  The  bugle 
sounded  the  signal  for  departure,  and  the  ladies  were 
placed  on  the  backs  of  the  ambulance  mules,  accompanied 
by  the  men  of  their  party,  and  intrusted  to  the  care  of 
the  doctor  of  the  battalion.  For  a  time  the  road  was  fair- 
1}^  good.  An  hour's  march  brought  them  to  the  wood- 
cutters' camp,  a  group  of  huts  inhabited  by  tlie  men  who 
work  the  forest.  Here  the  mules'  straps  were  tightened, 
their  shoes  examined,  and  their  burdens  carefully  put  in 
order,  for  the  last  part  of  the  road  is  the  hardest.  The 
wood-cutters'  camp  is  the  last  point  where  there  is  any 
water,  and  so,  before  starting,  all  the  animals  are  given 
to  drink,  and  all  the  pots,  gourds,  and  other  receptacles 
are  filled. 

The  zigzag  and  very  precipitous  path,  mounting  up  a 
steep  incline  formed  of  loose  fragments  of  rock,  is  ham- 
pered by  roots  and  branches  of  trees.  The  men  march 
briskly.     Their  step  shows  that  they  are  accustomed  to 


192  THE  FRENCH  ARMY 

the  mountain,  its  steep  paths,  and  its  rarefied  air.  Their 
hmgs,  like  their  muscles,  are  strengthened  by  these  re- 
peated exercises  in  the  woods,  on  the  heights,  and  across 
the  glaciers  all  through  the  fine  months  of  the  year. 

Farther  on  the  ground  gets  bare ;  the  path  runs  over 
the  rock  itself;  the  zigzags  are  so  short  that  they  have 
scarcely  the  length  of  a  mule.  The  animals  advance  but 
very  slowly,  and  by  the  time  the  ambulance  reaches  the 
plateau  the  soldiers  have  already  been  there  some  time, 
and  the  bivouac  has  been  rapidly  formed. 

The  officer  in  command  comes  forward  to  meet  the 
tourists,  and,  to  their  great  surprise,  proposes  to  conduct 
them  to  their  hotel.  They  follow  him.  The  mules  stop 
at  the  extremity  of  the  plateau,  where  the  woods  begin. 
Under  the  trees  a  bivouac  has  been  installed  for  the  tour- 
ists. A  gourhl  of  pine  branches  will  protect  them  from 
the  coolness  of  the  night.  The  entrance  is  decorated  with 
bouquets  of  mountain  flowers. 

"  Here  is  your  home  for  one  day,  mesdames,"  says  the 
officer.  "  We  will  send  you  the  mule  litters,  and,  with 
some  fern  and  a  rug,  you  will  liave  a  fairly  comfortable 
bed." 

"  We  accept  the  lodging,  but  not  the  beds.  We  will 
not  deprive  your  sick." 

"  I  have  no  sick,"  replies  the  officer.  "  There  is  nobody 
in  the  ambulance.  The  ambulance  is,  so  to  speak,  useless. 
We  have  been  on  the  march  during  the  past  three  months. 
We  have  just  marched  six  long  spells  without  a  rest.  We 
shall  march  again  to-morrow,  and  then  perhaps  we  shall 
take  a  day's  rest.  My  men  are  in  perfect  training.  Now 
I  will  leave  you,  mesdames.  In  an  hour  I  will  come  to 
take  you  to  dinner." 

At  the  appointed  time  the  officer  came,  and  all  the 
tourists   followed   him   across  the   plateau,  admiring  the 


HUSSARS 


'^^^   OF  THR     ^. 

[Uiri7EE3lT7l 


THE   FRENCH  ARMY  I95 

splendid  panorama  spread  out  before  them.  From  the 
summit  of  the  Aution  (2060  metres)  they  saw  at  their 
feet,  hke  a  gigantic  ditch,  the  valley  of  the  Mimiera  join- 
ing the  Roya  at  the  east  near  San  Dalmazzo,  and  com- 
manded by  an  Italian  fort,  the  most  advanced  of  the 
works  that  defend  the  Col  de  Tende.  Beyond  the  depth 
of  the  Mimiera  rose  the  last  chain  of  the  Alpes  Maritimes, 
throwing  up  heavenward  the  ridge  Del  Diablo  (2687  me- 
tres) and  the  peak  of  L'Abisso  (2775  metres),  an  enormous 
mass,  with  its  snowy  covering  tinted  rose  by  the  setting 
sun — a  grand  and  striking  spectacle,  especially  when  seen 
from  the  midst  of  a  bivouac,  itself  always  so  curious  and 
so  attractive.  The  sentinels  watch  as  they  pace  to  and 
fro.  The  mules  browse  the  scant  but  tasty  grass  of  the 
high  plateaux.  Seated  on  old  tree -trunks,  the  officers 
finish  their  itineraries,  complete  their  notes,  draw  up  re- 
ports on  the  country  they  have  traversed,  make  sketches 
of  the  distant  mountain  silhouettes.  The  soldiers  sing  as 
they  clean  their  arms,  shout,  run,  and  amuse  themselves 
with  games.  To  see  their  movements  and  their  activity 
you  would  never  think  that  they  had  marched  twenty- 
five  miles  and  accomplished  a  manoeuvre  amid  all  the 
obstacles  of  mountainous  ground.  The  Italians  have  rea- 
son to  be  proud  of  their  Alpine  companies.  Our  chasseurs 
de  montagne  are  not  one  whit  inferior  to  them  in  tenacity 
and  endurance. 

Xight  closes  in.  Dinner  is  served  on  a  table  formed 
of  wattled  branches  covered  with  flowery  turf.  Old  pine 
trunks,  cut  down  in  time  of  former  wars,  serve  as  seats. 
A  big  fire  and  torches  formed  of  pine  branches  light  the 
guests  at  this  original  and  rustic  feast.  At  such  an  alti- 
tude frugality  is  obligatory,  nevertheless  the  fare  is  quite 
respectable.  The  chief  dishes  are  red  partridges  and  civet 
de  chamois,  pine  mushrooms,  an  ice  made  with  ewes'  milk 


19G  THE  FRENCH   ARMY 

and  sno^Y,  while  strawberries,  arbutus  berries,  and  wild 
forest  fruits,  served  in  nests  of  moss,  formed  the  dessert. 
The  tourists  are  delighted,  and  thank  the  officers  by 
drinking  their  health,  and  soon  all  retire  to  rest,  for  the 
next  morning  they  will  have  to  be  up  betimes. 

At  daybreak  the  battalion  resumes  its  march  along  the 
ridge,  alternately  through  woods  and  across  meagre  past- 
urages. The  solitude  is  absolute  except  for  some  2>cisto- 
rello  guarding  his  goats,  who  seem  literally  to  cling  to  the 
mountain-side.  The  view  is  marvellous  when  the  distance 
appears  through  a  rent  in  the  opaline  morning  mist. 

The  summit  of  the  Tuor  is  reached  without  great  diffi- 
culty, and  after  that  the  road  follows  the  jagged  edge  of 
an  extinct  crater,  at  the  bottom  of  which  winds  a  silver 
ribbon,  the  Planchette,  which  at  the  end  bathes  the  foun- 
dations of  the  Hotel  de  la  Bollene,  whose  dazzling  white 
walls  seem  not  far  away,  although  it  will  take  hours  to 
reach  it.  The  inclines  become  steeper  and  steeper,  and 
the  path  narrower  and  narrower.  The  ladies  seated  in 
the  panniers  and  swayed  by  the  movements  of  the  mules 
above  the  abyss  are  not  without  alarm.  They  are  not 
accustomed  to  the  sensations  of  these  giddy  heights  and 
depths. 

The  road  gets  worse,  and  becomes  absolutel}^  execrable 
at  the  point  where  the  grand  descent  begins,  and  where 
the  track  is  scarcely  marked  out  in  the  sinuosities  of  the 
rocks.  At  one  point  great  blocks  overhang ;  at  another 
sharp  projections  have  to  be  turned ;  almost  all  the  way 
the  road  follows  the  edge  of  a  precipice.  One  cannot  im- 
agine how  the  mules  will  pass  with  their  burdens,  or  how 
they  can  even  get  footing  in  this  dangerous  pass.  The 
battalion  passes  without  winking,  as  if  it  were  the  simplest 
thing  in  the  w^orld,  and  the  mountain  battery  follows  in 
its  turn.     But  not  the  tourists ;  they  find  the  danger  too 


GENERAL    AND    STAFF 


imminent  and  dismount,  preferring  to  trust  to  their  feet. 
Meanwhile  they  wait  till  the  path  is  free,  sitting  on  a 
granite  promontory,  and  watching  the  whole  battery  de- 
file along  this  track,  which  seems  impracticable  even  for 
the  goats  themselves.  It  is  a  work  of  strength  and  pa- 
tience, and  requires  as  much  skill  as  it  does  coolness. 
The  soldiers  hold  up  the  mules,  and  even  their  burdens, 
by  means  of  ropes.  Thus  relieved,  the  animals  glide  along 
rather  than  walk,  stiffening  their  fore -legs,  and  almost 
touching  the  ground  with  their  hind  quarters.  A  few  ac- 
cidents happen,  but,  thanks  to  the  manifold  precautions 


198  THE  FRENCH  ARMY 

and  to  the  care  of  the  drivers,  they  are  rarely  serious; 
the  mules  that  fall  are  soon  put  on  their  feet  again.  At 
last  this  long  and  perilous  pass  is  cleared ;  the  battery  and 
the  ambulance  rejoin  the  battalion,  and  after  a  short  halt 
the  march  is  resumed,  and  La  Bollene  is  reached. 

The  tourists  rushed  into  the  hotel,  delighted  to  find 
themselves  once  more  in  a  civilized  place,  and  to  be  able 
to  rest  for  a  few  hours.  The  column,  however,  continued 
its  march.  Later  on  the  tourists  started  for  Nice  in  a 
carriage.  Towards  the  end  of  the  day  they  overtook  the 
indefatigable  chasseurs^  who  were  still  marching  along,  al- 
though more  than  twelve  hours  had  passed  since  they  had 
begun  their  day's  work. 


VI 

Towards  the  end  of  the  month  of  August  the  station  of 
Florae  on  the  Midi  railway  presented  an  unaccustomed 
aspect.  The  employes  were  all  on  the  (lui  vive.  A  picket 
of  soldiers  under  arras  was  waiting  at  the  door.  An  of- 
ficer was  superintending  the  arrangement  of  tall  wooden 
indicators  with  the  inscriptions,  "  Caserne  haute,"  "  Ca- 
serne Ducale,"  Caserne  des  Celestins."  A  number  of  sub- 
altern officers  were  walking  up  and  down  the  platform  in 
the  midst  of  a  crowd  of  people  who  had  come  merely  to 
see.  The  4.30  train  was  expected,  bringing  most  of  the 
reservists  who  had  been  convoked  to  do  their  twenty- 
eight  days  of  military  service. 

The  train  steams  into  the  station  with  a  bunch  of  heads 
straining  through  every  car  window,  and  with  a  din  of 
cries,  calls,  and  songs.  From  all  the  compartments  issued 
young  men,  each  carrying  a  valise  or  a  bundle.  Most  of 
them  wear  civil  costume ;  some  are  in  military  uniform. 


THE   FRENCH  APvMY  I99 

The  agitation  is  extreme.  The  officers  at  the  top  of  their 
voices  call  out  the  names  of  the  barracks,  and  group  the 
reservists  around  the  indicators.  Gradually  order  is  estab- 
lished ;  the  noise  ceases ;  a  roll  of  the  drums  has  sufficed. 
The  reservists  follow  the  subaltern  officers  out  of  the  sta- 
tion, and  proceed  to  march  firmly  along  behind  the  reg- 
imental band  which  has  come  to  meet  them.  The  mass  of 
men,  so  noisy  and  loquacious  a  minute  ago,  has  become  si- 
lent, taken  place  in  the  ranks  in  correct  order,  and  marches 
along  to  the  rhythm  of  the  music  in  the  most  methodical 
manner,  without  murmur  or  protestation. 

AYhen  they  reach  the  barracks  the  detatchments  are 
handed  over  to  their  captains.  The  roll  is  called.  There 
are  few  missing.  The  reservists  take  up  their  quarters  in 
the  rooms  that  have  just  been  occupied  by  the  men  of  the 
territorial  army.  In  military  life  there  is  no  dull  season ; 
the  various  categories  of  men  succeed  each  other ;  recruits, 
disjyonihles,  non  exerces,  dispenses,  territoriaux,  reservistes, 
come,  one  after  the  other,  to  receive  or  to  renew  their  in- 
struction. 

The  next  morning,  as  if  they  had  been  touched  by  a 
magic  wand,  all  these  men  were  dressed,  equipped,  armed, 
and  at  work  on  the  drill-ground.  To  see  their  bearing, 
their  zeal,  and  their  readiness  in  the  exercises,  inexperi- 
enced eyes  might  confound  them  with  the  regular  soldiers 
of  the  regiment.  This  rapid  transformation — one  of  the 
necessities  of  modern  warfare — has  become  part  of  the 
manners  and  customs  of  the  country.  Three  days  after- 
wards  the  regiment  left  Florae  to  take  part  in  the  grand 
autumn  manoeuvres,  absolutely  in  the  same  conditions  as 
if  it  had  started  on  a  real  campaign. 


200  THE  FRENCH  ARMY 


VII 


During  the  autumn  manoeuvres  the  cantonment  of  the 
troops  has  a  pecuHar  and  picturesque  character.  It  is 
neither  a  fete,  nor  a  fair,  nor  a  market,  but  all  three  put 
together.  The  streets  are  crowded  with  vehicles,  horsemen, 
estafettes,  troops,  canteen  women,  sutlers,  contractors,  all 
hurrying  about  and  very  busy.  Every  house  is  changed 
into  barracks.  The  stables,  the  sheds,  barns,  and  store- 
houses are  full  of  soldiers  cleaning  their  accoutrements, 
furbishing  their  arms,  cooking  their  food.  The  population 
has  suspended  its  existence.  Those  who  can  find  anything 
that  the  troops  want,  offer  it  for  sale.  Those  who  have 
nothing  to  sell  stroll  about  to  satisfy  their  curiosity.  Cart- 
loads of  bread  and  meat  follow  wagons  laden  with  straw 
or  wood,  and  no  sooner  have  they  arrived  in  the  market- 
place than  they  are  emptied  into  the  regimental  carts,  which 
distribute  their  contents  in  the  different  quarters.  Mean- 
while the  telegraphists  unroll  their  cables  and  fix  them 
along  the  houses;  the  ambulant  station  is  installed  in  front 
of  the  town-hall,  and  messages  begin  to  go  and  come. 
There  is  the  staff— the  motor,  the  brain,  the  apparatus, 
that  transmits  the  will  of  the  commander  of  the  army 
corps.  On  horseback,  surrounded  by  all  his  officers,  the 
chief  of  the  staff  listens  to  reports,  gives  orders,  signs 
papers ;  the  officers  write  on  the  pommel  of  their  saddles ; 
messages  are  despatched  in  all  directions,  and  conveyed 
rapidly  by  estafettes  on  horseback,  orderlies  on  foot,  ve- 
locipedists  with  light  trousers,  gaiters,  and  little  caps. 

A  big  cart  with  four  horses  arrives  at  a  trot,  with  diffi- 
culty cleaving  its  way  through  the  crowd.  It  contains  long 
baskets  that  seem  to  hold  poultry.  The  crowd  salutes  this 
apparition  with  a  volley  of  jokes,  but  soon  it  becomes  all 
attention  when  it  sees  that  the  baskets  contain  carrier- 


r 
C 


>    l\    ^, 


THE  FRENCH   ARMY  203 

pigeons.  The  birds  are  to  l^e  let  go,  and  all  crowd  and 
criisli  to  see  the  operation.  An  officer  verifies  the  indica- 
tions on  the  baskets,  and  has  them  opened  one  after  the 
other.  The  pigeons  come  out  slowly,  rise,  sweep  round  two 
or  three  times,  and  then  start  off  in  a  straight  line  for  their 
homes,  not  a  little  alarmed  by  the  cries  and  the  joy  of  the 
public  deeply  interested  by  the  spectacle. 

Kext  follow  the  aeronautical  carts,  with  a  big  balloon 
swaying  over  the  first  one,  while  on  the  other  carts  are 
numbers  of  little  pilot  or  reserve  balloons,  the  oven  for 
making  the  gas,  and  ropes  and  tackle  of  all  sorts.  The 
sight-seers  are  much  impressed  by  this  new  war  apparatus, 
which  they  now  see  for  the  first  time,  and  which,  in  their 
enthusiasm  and  astonishment,  they  honor  with  an  ovation. 

Suddenly  the  market-place  is  cleared.  The  people  hasten 
away  as  quickly  as  they  came.  A  word  has  sufficed :  "  Les 
etrangers  arrivent !"  The  foreigners  are  coming  !  And 
everybody  hurries  away  to  the  railway  station. 

A  regimental  band  plays  when  the  train  arrives  bringing 
the  foreign  officers.  The  chief  of  the  staff  welcomes  them 
in  a  room  decorated  with  flowers  and  verdure,  where  the 
local  authorities  are  assembled.  After  these  compliments 
the  foreign  officers  are  conveyed  in  breaks  to  the  principal 
hotel,  where  rooms  have  been  engaged  for  them,  and  while 
the  regimental  wagons  are  bringing  their  baggage,  a  lunch 
is  served  in  the  dining-room.  After  lunch  the  foreign 
officers  go  for  a  walk  through  the  town  in  little  groups. 
The  crowd  gazes  at  them  deferentially,  trying  to  distin- 
guish their  nationality  from  their  uniforms,  and  discreetly 
manifesting  its  sympathies. 

But  the  streets  are  so  crowded  that  it  is  not  easy  to  walk 
about.  It  is  the  hour  of  the  evening  meal.  The  streets, 
the  open  spaces,  the  court -yards,  are  encumbered  with 
tables.     Hotels,  inns,  cafes,  make  every  effort  to  satisfy 


204  THE  FRENCH   ARMY 

their  swarms  of  customers.  Soldiers  and  reservists  are 
eating,  drinking,  laughing,  and  singing.  During  the  march, 
the  manoeuvres,  and  the  corvees,  the  men  have  remained  se- 
rious, but  now  that  they  are  no  longer  on  duty,  gaiiloiserie 
resumes  it  rights  and  overflows  like  the  glasses.  There  are 
no  sulkers,  no  sufferers  from  homesickness.  Oblivion  wipes 
out  all  cares.  The  soldier's  life  is  hard  at  times,  but  there 
is  no  help  for  it,  and  the  men  are  gay  and  joyous  all  the 
same — a  precious  quality  in  manoeuvres,  admirable  in  war, 
and  an  excellent  resource  against  adversity. 

Night  comes  on.  Lamps,  lanterns,  and  candles  are 
lighted,  and  throw  into  relief  the  dark  shadows  of  the 
garlands  of  foliage  and  the  transparencies,  with  their  in- 
scriptions in  honor  of  the  army.  In-doors  and  out-of-doors 
there  are  sounds  of  music  and  dancing.  No  scandalous 
scenes,  no  drunkenness.  This  frank  gayety,  this  vigor  of 
our  men,  who,  after  marching  all  day,  and  with  the  pros- 
pect of  hard  work  the  next  day,  still  run  about  and  dance, 
always  astonish  foreigners,  who  are  struck  by  their  j^hys- 
ical  endurance  and  good-humor. 


VIII 

A  little  after  sunrise  solitude  reigned  in  the  little  town 
of  Monvel,  that  had  been  so  animated  the  previous  night. 
The  troops  had  all  disappeared,  and  nearly  all  the  inhab- 
itants too,  for  they  had  gone  to  see  the  manoeuvres.  At  a 
distance  of  about  six  miles  from  the  town  the  columns  of 
troops  begin  to  appear  and  to  close  up.  A  long  file  of 
breaks  brings  the  foreign  officers  up  to  a  vast  circular  tent, 
"where  a  well-provided  buffet  awaits  them.  The  general- 
in-chief  is  announced,  and  all  the  officers  place  themselves 
according  to  nationality,  and  the  official  presentations  take 


THE  FRENCH  ARMY 


205 


VELOCIPEDIST 


place.  Then  the  general  retires  to  order 
operations  to  begin.  The  foreign  officers 
find  horses  ready  for  them,  and  under  the 
guidance  of  French  officers  placed  at  their 
service  they  disperse,  in  order  to  follow 
the  incidents  of  the  action. 

The  attacking  troops  advance  slowly  in 
long  lines  of  sharp-shooters.  The  defence 
retreats,  and  concentrates  its  efforts  on 
defending  the  passage  of  the  valley,  the 
hedges  from  which  tall  poplar-trees  rise, 
the  mill,  whose  dam,  running  parallel  with 
the  river,  augments  its  power  of  resistance. 
Still  the  defence  is  obliged  to  yield,  and  ac- 
cordingly falls  back  half-way  up  the  hill, 
where  a  village  forms  its  centre.  This  point  becomes  the 
object  of  all  the  efforts  of  the  assailants.  The  defenders 
are  once  more  forced  to  fall  back  to  the  summit  of  the 
hill ;  the  position  is  excellent  and  difficult  of  access. 
The  defence  has  taken  its  measures  well.  The  attack, 
however,  behaves  equally  well.  The  lines  close  up ;  the 
reserves  approach.  You  feel  that  the  denouement  is  not 
far  off. 

To  the  right  a  long  cloud  of  dust  and  a  dull  rumbling 
announce  the  approach  of  artillery,  which  dashes  forward, 
and  soon  deploys  on  a  hill-side.  They  are  no  longer  small 
cannons  of  shining  bronze,  such  as  the  Prussian  pieces 
destroyed  in  1870,  without  fear  of  being  touched  by  their 
projectiles.  In  place  of  these  old-fashioned  guns  we  see  a 
long  row  of  stiff  and  black  steel  tubes  without  artistic 
character — artillery  of  long  and  precise  range,  with  which 
the  enemy  will  have  one  day  to  count. 

The  public  hurries  up  on  foot,  on  horseback,  in  carriages, 
eager  to  see  the  exciting  spectacle  of  the  image  of  war. 


206  THE  FRENCH  ARMY 

On  the  side  that  forms  the  left  of  the  attack  is  an  eleva- 
tion commanding  the  Canal  du  Midi.  Some  horse  batteries 
trot  np  and  take  their  position  there.  They  clear  walls 
and  ditches,  then  deploy  at  a  gallop,  stop  in  line,  and  run 
out  their  guns.  Two  squadrons  of  chasseurs,  on  their  little 
smoking  horses,  gallop  after  them,  leap  over  all  obstacles, 
dash  through  stones  and  bushes,  and  take  up  their  position 
a  little  in  the  rear  of  the  batteries,  to  protect  them. 

The  crowd  applauds  the  artillerymen  and  the  chasseurs, 
whose  rapid  evolution  has  been  executed  with  incompar- 
able dash,  boldness,  and  maestria.  Absorbed  by  their  en- 
thusiasm, the  spectators  want  to  see  everything  without 
heeding  the  dangers  that  surround  them.  No  sooner  are 
the  batteries  in  position  than  the  firing  begins.  The  re- 
peated detonations  frighten  the  horses  in  the  throng  of 
carriages.  The  ladies  stop  their  ears.  Screams  and  cries 
of  lamentation  are  heard.  One  horse  bolts  away  with  a 
carriage  full  of  people ;  the  coachman  has  lost  all  control ; 
the  descent  is  steep ;  the  road  runs  along  the  brow  of  the 
hill  that  dominates  the  canal ;  the  turn  is  very  short,  the 
danger  imminent,  and  no  help  appears  possible.  A  lieu- 
tenant of  the  supporting  squadrons  sees  the  danger  and 
the  way  to  meet  it,  makes  his  horse  leap  over  hedge  and 
ditch,  and  places  himself  tranquilly  across  the  road.  The 
carriage  comes  tearing  along ;  there  is  a  terrible  shock ; 
officer  and  horse  are  overthrown,  and  the  runaway  horse 
and  carriage  come  to  a  stand-still  in  a  cloud  of  dust.  The 
people  in  the  carriage  are  unhurt,  but  the  lieutenant,  who 
has  saved  their  lives,  is  picked  up  grievously  wounded  and 
unconscious.  Thereupon  the  men  of  the  Red  Cross  Society 
come  up  and  take  charge  of  him.  The  canal  is  near,  and 
on  it  is  a  section  of  the  floating  ambulance,  a  recent  crea- 
tion of  the  Union  des  Femmes  de  France,  whose  litter-men 
carry  the  wounded  officer  on  board,  and  convey  him  to 


THE  FRENCH  ARMY 


207 


no  change 


the  village  of  Pontpetit,  Avhere  at  night 
^'\)        the  ambulance  of  the  army  corps  is  to  be 
established. 

This  episode  could  naturally  make 

in  the  normal  development  of  the 

the   intensity    of   which   increases 

The  riflemen  thicken  their  ranks ; 

enter  in  line  in  compact  masses ; 

left  the  artillery  quickens  its 

infantry  well  sheltered  form 

mitrailleuses.      The    rattle 


manoeuvre,         \i 
every  second, 
the    reserves 
from    right   to 
fire.     Platoons  of 
veritable    human 
of  the  musketry  in- 
cumulates   all   its    re 
its  intention  of  making 
the  right  wing  the   cav- 
trot,  a  little  masked  by  the 
ground.       The    horses    are 


creases.     The  attack  ac- 

sources,  thus  intimating 

a  vigorous  effort.     On 

airy    advances    at    a 

irregularities  of  the 

uneasy.     You  feel 


208  THE  FRENCH  ARMY 

from  their  restrained  step  that  the  charge  is  about  to  take 
place. 

The  signal  is  given.  From  all  sides  the  troops  dash 
forward,  the  cavalry  towards  the  enemy's  flank,  the  in- 
fantry in  the  same  direction.  Bayonets  are  fixed.  Drums 
and  bugles  beat  and  sound  the  charge.  In  spite  of  the 
steepness  of  the  ascent  the  step  is  quickened  to  a  run,  to 
repeated  cries  of  "  En  avant !  en  avant !"  The  enemy  re- 
treats, and  the  public  too,  terror-stricken  by  the  torrent  of 
mounting  bayonets.  The  assault  is  finished ;  the  crest  of 
the  hill  is  reached  ;  the  position  is  won. 


IX 

A  few  days  afterwards  the  army  corps  was  assembled 
on  the  banks  of  the  Gers,  in  the  splendid  Armagnac  re- 
gion near  Audi.  The  grand  autumn  manoeuvres  were  at 
an  end.  The  final  review  was  about  to  take  place.  This 
event  is  the  fete,  the  crowning  of  the  eff'orts,  the  recom- 
jiense  of  the  labor  of  all. 

From  very  distant  points  the  spectators  have  gathered 
in  such  immense  crowds  that,  although  very  numerous, 
the  troops  are  almost  lost  amid  the  ocean  of  heads.  The 
faubourg  is  decorated  with  flags,  garlands,  triumphal 
arches  of  greenery,  banners,  and  handeroles  bearing  in- 
scriptions in  honor  of  the  army.  The  Place  de  Strasbourg 
is  thronged  with  people  —  on  the  roofs,  on  the  trees,  at 
the  windows  —  every  corner  is  occupied.  The  review  is 
passed.  The  general -in -chief  returns  to  the  Place,  fol- 
lowed by  all  the  foreign  officers  in  full-dress  uniform, 
and  the  marching  past  begins  amid  the  applause  of  the 
spectators,  who  comprehend  the  importance  of  the  re- 
sult manifested  by  the  smart  and  regular  step  of  the  in- 


THE  FRENCH  ARMY  209 

fantry,  still  fresh  and  in  line  form  after  twenty  days  of 
hard  manoeuvres. 

In  this  part  of  France  people  are  impressionable ;  they 
feel  and  appreciate  vividly ;  their  demonstrative  nature 
delights  in  exterior  manifestations;  they  feel  a  need  of 
ffiving"  vent  to  their  enthusiasm.  To  see  their  reservists, 
their  children,  their  fellow -citizens,  march  smartly  past 
and  represent  their  province  brilliantly  in  the  eyes  of  all 
the  foreign  military  missions  excited  their  enthusiasm  to 
the  highest  degree,  and  made  them  prodigal  of  their 
cheers.  All  the  regiments,  all  the  arms,  all  the  colors, 
were  greeted  with  roars  of  applause ;  the  very  length  of 
the  spectacle  seemed  to  revive  them;  and  their  enthusi- 
asm was  justified. 

When  it  was  over,  when  the  commander-in-chief  saluted 
the  foreigners  and  the  authorities,  and  then  returned  into 
the  town,  followed  by  his  brilliant  cortege,  cries  of  "  Yive 
le  general !"  rose  from  all  sides.  The  crowd  seemed  to 
have  but  one  voice  to  say  to  him,  "  Merci !" — thank  you. 
Among  these  ardent  Southerners  it  was,  as  it  were^  a  ver- 
itable explosion  of  national  sentiment  and  local  self-love. 
Doubtless  there  was  in  it  a  warm  and  grateful  feeling 
towards  the  chief  who  had  directed  the  manoeuvres,  but 
this  unanimous  homage  was  addressed  principally  to  the 
army,  to  its  activity  and  its  good  training,  which  are  pledges 
of  security  and  of  hope.  And  in  their  enthusiasm  you  felt 
the  vibration  of  the  nation  itself  applauding  the  living  ex- 
pression of  its  resuscitation. 

14 


210  THE  FRENCH  ARMY 


X 


Other  manoeuvres,  more  restricted  but  not  less  interest- 
ing, were  then  taking  place  in  the  Vosges  district,  where 
excellent  troops  found  enthusiastic  hearts  to  admire  them. 
Under  the  less  luminous  sky  of  eastern  France  you  no 
longer  find  the  noisy  expansiveness  of  the  south.  On  the 
frontier  the  attitude  is  silent  and  melancholy,  and  cries 
are  replaced  by  looks  that  are  as  eloquent  as  words. 

The  contrast  is  complete  between  the  two  sides  of  the 
mountains.  On  the  west,  calm,  tranquillity,  hope.  On 
the  east,  agitation,  persecution,  alarm.  A  strange  specta- 
cle. The  Germans  live  in  a  state  of  perpetual  suspicion. 
The  smoke  that  rises  in  the  air,  the  wind  that  blows,  the 
gunshot  of  a  hunter,  the  digging  of  a  ditch,  the  building 
of  a  wall — everything  excites  their  suspicion.  The  move- 
ments of  our  troops  in  particular  worry  them  intensely. 
Military  reconnoissances,  making  rapid  explorations  on 
the  slopes  of  the  Hohneck  or  the  Prayez,  drive  them  wild, 
and  all  sorts  of  suppositions  come  into  their  heads  as  to 
the  motives,  the  means,  the  object.  The  absence  of  all 
mystery  makes  them  think  that  there  must  be  some. 
They  want  absolutely  to  know  what  we  are  doing.  They 
are  astonished  to  see  us  moving  about  in  our  own  coun- 
try, so  little  do  they  themselves  feel  at  home  on  the  other 
side  of  the  mountains. 

The  Germans  are  tortured  with  apprehension.  Their 
ever-increasing  armaments  do  not  make  them  feel  secure. 
The  victor,  the  conqueror,  the  mighty  man,  declares  that 
he  fears  nothing,  and  at  the  same  time  he  fears  everything, 
both  what  he  sees,  and  still  more  what  he  does  not  see. 
The  Germans  are  peculiarly  concerned  about  the  progress 
of  the  French  army.  They  feel  that  they  are  already 
equalled,  and  that  perhaps  they  will  soon  be  surpassed. 


CHASSEUR    A    CHETAL 


Hence  that  immoderate  need  of  getting  information  un- 
der all  pretexts,  by  all  means,  under  all  disguises.  Tour- 
ists, workmen,  peddlers,  ambulant  musicians,  etc.,  are  al- 
ways wandering  about  the  frontier  zone.  But,  in  spite  of 
that,  they  are  always  in  doubt.  All  the  precautions  they 
take,  all  the  spies  they  send,  all  the  money  they  spend,  do 
not  satisfy  their  curiosity.  Why  ?  Because  the  informa- 
tion obtained  is  not  such  as  thev  could  wish. 

Refusing  to  believe  in  the  so  complete  reorganization 
of  the  French  array,  a  Pomeranian  seigneur  resolved  to 
judge  for  himself,  and  requested  his  doctor  to  prescribe 
for  him  an  air  cure  in  the  Vosges.     Armed  with  an  iron- 


212  THE  FRENCH  ARMY 

shod  alpenstock,  which  he  carried  so  that  all  could  see  it, 
and  with  a  revolver  hidden  in  his  pocket,  accompanied  by 
some  friends  and  preceded  by  a  few  spies,  he  climbed  up 
the  mountain,  gained  the  edge  of  the  woods,  and  came 
and  sat  close  to  the  frontier,  on  the  ruins  of  the  feudal 
castle  of  Zweifelhof.  From  this  point  he  could  see  a  por- 
tion of  the  French  slope  of  the  Vosges,  where  a  manoeuvre 
was  announced  to  take  place.  He  saw  on  the  ridges  some 
Alsacians  showing  themselves  timidly,  for  they,  too,  wished 
to  see  our  soldiers.  The  Pomeranian  was  well  placed  in 
order  to  appreciate  the  emotion  of  the  former  and  the 
merit  of  the  latter. 

Soon  the  solitude  became  animated.  Some  scouts  are 
seen  at  the  bottom  of  the  valley.  Riflemen  appear  in  the 
black  woods.  There  are  preparations  for  a  fight,  and  the 
firing  begins. 

"Oh!"  cries  the  foreign  spectator;  "by  the  devil,  who 
is  the  accomplice  of  these  Gauls  ?  I  hear  shots,  but  I  see 
no  smoke.     Another  legend  gone  overboard." 

At  this  moment  an  infantry  regiment,  issuing  from  the 
forest,  crossed  the  valley  calmly,  and  advanced  in  battle 
array  towards  the  opposite  slope. 

"  Always  imprudent — the  French,"  remarked  the  grand 
seigneur.  "  They  are  going  to  mount  those  long  slopes, 
where  they  would  be  easily  mown  down  by  the  fire  of  the 
enemy. 

"  No,  Excellency,  that  is  a  pretence  only  ;  you  see  they 
are  bearing  more  to  the  right." 

"  To  the  right  there  are  rocks.  They  cannot  get  up 
that  way,  I  imagine." 

"  Still  they  seem  to  be  doing  so.  Yes ;  they  are  climb- 
ing." 

"  They  must  be  mad  to  try  to  climb  up  a  rock  so  steep 
that  it  is  almost  perpendicular.    The  ascent  is  impossible." 


THE  FRENCH   ARMY  213 

"  Still,  they  are  getting  up." 

"  Well,  if  they  did  get  up  they  would  be  cut  to  pieces 
at  once  by  the  enemy  on  the  top." 

"  But  the  enemy  could  not  stay  there.  See  the  French 
batteries  opposite,  half-way  up  the  hill,  and  covering  by 
their  fire  the  eminence  that  the  infantry  are  scaling. 
Their  bold  manoeuvre  might  be  successful,  after  all." 

The  Pomeranian  seigneur  made  no  reply.  He  seemed 
ill  at  ease,  and  after  a  moment  he  asked  for  his  cloak  and 
his  flask,  out  of  which  he  drank.  "  Where  does  this 
Branntwein  come  from?"  he  asked. 

"  From  Aarau,  Excellency  ;  it  bears  the  mark." 

"  The  bottle,  yes ;  but  not  what  is  in  it.  It  comes  from 
France.  There  can  be  no  mistake."  Then  he  murmured 
to  himself :  "  Inexorable  fatality !  Germany  cannot  pro- 
duce cognac  !  What  a  subject  of  observation  for  the  phys- 
iologist and  the  moralist !  So  much  weakness  combined 
with  so  much  strength !" 

Mute,  his  eyes  fixed  on  the  battalions  scaling  the  rocks, 
he  shook  his  head  as  if  to  drive  away  some  disagreeable 
thought.  He  suffered,  and  yet  he  continued  to  watch. 
He  saw  the  summits  carried  with  impetuosity,  while  the 
infantry  reformed  their  ranks  in  an  instant,  and  simulated 
a  thick  fire  against  the  enemy  supposed  to  be  retreating. 

At  that  moment  some  women  wearing  broad  bows  of 
black  ribbons  in  their  hair,  and  big  white  embroidered 
aprons,  and  holding  their  children  by  the  hand,  came  out 
of  the  wood  and  advanced  towards  the  troops  at  rest, 
where  they  were  received  with  cheers. 

"What  are  all  those  women  doing?"  asked  the  Pom- 
eranian seigneur  of  one  of  his  followers. 

"  The  French  soldiers  are  a  great  attraction  for  the 
Alsaciennes,  Excellency.     There  will  probably  be  a  dance 

to-night  at  the  farm  of  Le  Tanet." 

.14* 


214 


THE   FRENCH   ARMY 


"  I  thoiiglit  our  people  were  forbidden  to  cross  the  fron- 
tier and  enter  French  territory." 

"  Yes,  but  they  cross  it  all  the  same." 

"  Shall  we  have  to  wall  in  the  frontier,  then  ?" 

"  That  would  be  a  costly  and  doubtless  a  useless  meas- 
ure.    Walls  cannot  stop  hearts  or  ideas." 

"  True,"  murmured  his  Excellency.  Implacable  fatality ! 
The  Germans  can  do  everything  with  the  help  of  God, 
but  still  they  cannot  make  the  Alsacians  love  them." 

After  a  short  rest,  the  troops  marched  back  down  the 
slopes  and  regained  their  bivouac.  They  had  just  accom- 
plished, by  way  of  exercise,  one  of  those  manoeuvres  which 
sometimes  secure  a  victory.  Their  good-humor  bore  wit- 
ness to  their  confidence  and  to  their  power  of  resisting 
fatigue. 

The  tourist  had  risen.  He  wished  to  go  away,  and  yet 
he  could  not  take  his  eyes  off  the  French  regiment  en- 
gaged in  disposing  its  advanced  posts  and  patrols.     Short- 


V 


^^ 


CHASSEURS    A    PIKD 


THE   FRENCH   ARMY  215 

ly  afterwards  a  patrol  coming  up  to  the  guard  posted  just 
below  the  Zweifelhof  was  met  by  the  cry,  "  Qui  vive  V 
And  the  patrol  replied,  "France." 

The  Teuton  wiped  his  brow,  threw  a  last  glance  at  the 
encampment,  and  went  away  with  the  uneven,  step  of  an 
angry  man,  wdiile  the  echo  of  the  rocks  and  the  voices  of 
the  Alsaciennes  issuing  from  the  depths  of  the  woods  sent 
back  to  his  grieved  ears  the  words,  "  Vive  France !" 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY 


THE 


'-y^   OF 

[USIVERSITT] 


iTNCEEE  and  unaffected  love  for  his 
monarch,  profound  religious  piety  in- 
timately united  with  the  idea  of  the 
Tsar  and  of  the  father-land,  attach- 
ment to  the  father -land,  unlimited 
confidence  in  his  chiefs,  very  strong 
esprit  de  corps,  and  a  faculty  of 
enduring  gayly  and  naturally  the 
greatest  privations  —  such  are  the 
most  marked  characteristics  of  the 
Kussian  soldier.  .  To  these  traits 
must  be  added  remarkable  bravery  and  a  rare  contempt 
of  death,  combined  with  naive  kind  -  heartedness  and  a 
gentle  and  indulgent  disposition.  The  Eussian  soldier  is 
distinguished  by  a  good-humor  that  never  abandons  him 
even  in  the  most  difficult  moments,  by  his  brotherly  un- 
derstanding with  his  comrades,  and  by  his  gay  and  con- 
tented way  of  facing  all  the  decrees  of  fate.  Obedience  is 
so  deeply  rooted  in  the  mind  of  the  Kussian  soldier  that 
during  my  thirty  years'  experience  of  the  army  I  do  not 
remember  to  have  witnessed  one  single  case  of  insubordi- 
nation, either  in  times  of  peace  or  in  times  of  war. 

The  Russian  soldier  dies  at  his  post.  I  have  seen  him 
in  winter  on  sentry  duty  on  the  heights  of  Shipka  die 
standing,  surrounded  with  snow,  and  transformed  literally 
into  a  statue  of  ice ;  I  have  "^een  him  die  on  the  march, 
striding  over  the  sandy  desert,  and  yielding  up  his  last 
breath  with  his  last  step ;  I  have  seen  him  die  of  his 


220 


THE   RUSSIAN   ARMY 


wounds  on  the  battle-field  or  in  the  hospital,  at  a  distance 
of  three  thousand  miles  from  his  native  village — and  in 
these  supreme  moments  I  have  always  found  the  Kussian 
soldier  sublime. 

Although  a  child  of  the  plain,  where  his  eye  rarely  de- 
scries the  most  modest  hill,  we  see  him  boldly  scale  the 
topmost  summits  of  the  Caucasus,  and  climb  the  rocks 
and  glaciers  of  the  Thian-Shan,  fighting  all  the  time.     He 

feels  at  home  everywhere,  whether 
in  the  steppes  of  the  father -land, 
in  the  tundras  of  Siberia,  or  the 
mountains  and  deserts  of  central 
Asia.  He  has  an  exceptional  fac- 
ulty of  putting  himself  at  his  ease 
wherever  he  may  be,  even  in  places 
where  others  would  die  of  hunger 
and  thirst. 

I  have  seen  the  Russian  soldier 
at  home  in  time  of  peace,  or  dur- 
ing truces  in  the  enemy's  country, 
rocking  the  peasant's  child  in  the 
village  where  he  was  stationed ;  I 
have  seen  him  bivouacking  in  the 
desert,  Avith  his  tongue  parched 
and  burning,  receive  his  ration  of 
a  quarter  of  a  litre  of  salt-water ;  I 
have  seen  him  in  heat  and  in  cold, 
in  hunger  and  in  thirst,  in  peace 
and  in  war  —  and  I  have  always 
found  in  him  the  same  desire  to 
oblige,  the  same  abnegation  of  self 
for  the  sake  of  the  safety  and  the 
good  of  others.  These  special 
characteristics  of  the  Eussian  sol- 


}% 


OLD    GRENADIER 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY  221 

dier — his  self-denial,  his  simple  and  natural  self-sacrifice — 
give  him  peculiar  powers  as  a  warrior. 

The  fifteen  thousand  miles  of  frontier  of  the  empire 
offer  infinite  variety  of  topographical  details,  beginning 
with  the  wild  heights  of  that  long  range  of  primitive 
mountains  which,  starting  from  the  Pacific  Ocean,  sepa- 
rates the  Russian  Empire  from  the  Celestial  Empire,  and 
ending  with  the  moss  and  virgin  forests  of  Lapland,  and 
the  f jails  of  Norway,  to  say  nothing  of  the  whole  coast  of 
the  Arctic  Ocean.  These  frontiers  traverse  mountainous 
countries — parts  of  which  have  not  yet  been  enlightened 
by  human  knowledge  —  burning  deserts,  green  steppes, 
where  thousands  of  Kirgheez  and  other  nomad  tribes  past- 
ure their  innumerable  herds  ;  they  cross  fertile  plains,  and 
seas  ploughed  by  the  ships  of  all  nations ;  and  they  touch 
the  most  civilized  and  the  best  cultivated  countries  of  Eu- 
rope. The  different  tribes  and  nations  which  people  the 
adjacent  territories  of  these  enormous  frontiers  are  so 
widely  different  and  so  numerous  that  their  mere  complete 
enumeration  would  take  too  much  space.  We  can  note 
only  Coreans,  Tunguses,  Manchoos,  Mongolians,  Kalmucks, 
Chinese,  Uzbecks,  Afghans,  Persians,  Kurds,  Armenians, 
Wallachians,  Poles,  Germans,  Swedes,  Laplanders,  etc. 
We  might  therefore  readily  conceive  the  great  Russian 
army  to  be  composed  of  many  parts  of  different  nature, 
each  specially  trained  to  act  in  different  spheres,  in  op- 
posite climates,  and  against  different  and  particular  na- 
tionalities. We  find,  however,  in  reality,  that  the  great 
Russian  army,  with  the  few  exceptions  onl}^  of  the  irreg- 
ular troops,  which  are  not  numerous,  forms  one  grand  ho- 
mogeneous mass,  organized,  armed,  clad,  and  disciplined  in 
the  same  manner.  The  battalions  of  the  line  and  riflemen 
of  eastern  Siberia  are  not  distinguished  in  any  way  from 
their  comrades  of  the  same  arms  in  Turkistan  or  the  Cau- 


222  THE  RUSSIAN   ARxMY 

casus,  or  from  the  regiments  in  Poland  and  in  the  district 
of  St.  Petersburg.  A  few  minor  details  of  costume,  ne- 
cessitated purely  by  questions  of  climate,  may  alone  be 
remarked  here  and  there.  The  Russian  army  is  there- 
fore, in  all  its  parts,  ready  and  capable  to  act  on  every 
possible  field  of  battle,  otherwise  it  would  be  impossible 
to  defend  a  territory  so  thinly  populated  in  comparison 
with  its  extent. 

Ethnographical  circumstances  play  in  the  construction 
of  the  army  a  much  less  significant  role  than  one  might 
be  tempted  to  expect  in  an  empire  which  comprises  fifteen 
great  nationalities,  not  including  the  different  component 
tribes.  In  Daghestan  alone,  which  forms  a  part  of  the 
Caucasus  chain  120  miles  long  by  90  broad,  we  find  fortj^- 
eight  different  tribes,  almost  all  speaking  a  dialect  of  their 
own.  But  in  spite  of  this  wealth  of  ethnographical  ele- 
ments, we  find  the  greater  part  of  the  different  national- 
ities of  Russia  in  Europe,  Siberia,  and  the  Caucasus  min- 
gled in  the  regular  army.  I  knew  very  well  one  regiment 
stationed  on  the  banks  of  the  Volga  in  central  Russia 
which  was  chiefly  composed  of  inhabitants  of  the  gov- 
ernments of  Kostroma  and  Wladimir,  but  in  which  there 
were  also  Lettes,  Poles,  and  138  Tatares  from  the  environs 
of  Kazan.  The  Peuzates,  the  Bashkirs,  the  Finnish  Tchere- 
misse  tribes,  the  Tchuwakes  and  the  Mordwa,  who  dwell 
in  the  central  district  of  the  Volga,  along  its  eastern  afflu- 
ents, and  in  the  Ural  Mountains,  also  serve  in  the  ranks 
of  the  regular  army.  But  at  the  end  of  a  single  year's 
service  all  these  representatives  of  different  races  are 
merged  into  one  and  the  same  type,  that  of  the  Russian 
soldier. 

In  recruiting  the  troops  we  endeavor  as  much  as  possi- 
ble to  follow  the  principle  of  forming  regiments  of  men 
taken  from  the  nearest  governments.     But  in  a  country 


iv^U  Vt^^^.^^■2' 


THE  DEPARTURE  OF  THE  CONSCRIPT 


where  the  population  is  so  unequally  distributed  this  is 
not  always  feasible.  Thus,  for  instance,  the  Turkistan 
troops  are  ordinarily  recruited  from  the  environs  of  the 
Kama  Eiver,  from  Oufa,  Orenburg,  and  western  Siberia, 
while  the  Caucasian  troops  are  recruited  from  the  central 
and  southern  Yolga,  from  the  steppes  of  the  Don  and  of 
the  northern  Caucasus.     For  the  guards,  the  artillery,  and 


224  THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY 

the  special  arms  the  tallest  and  most  robust  men  are  se- 
lected from  all  over  the  empire.  The  cavalry  is  chiefly- 
recruited  from  Little  Russia  and  Ukrania — that  is  to  say, 
from  the  governments  to  the  north  of  the  Black  Sea, 
whose  inhabitants  are  considered  to  be  pecuharly  suited 
for  this  service.  The  fleet  takes  its  contingent  from  the 
governments  of  the  North,  from  the  islands,  and  from 
the  Baltic  provinces.  The  sappers,  miners,  electricians,  and 
balloon  corps  are  chosen  among  those  whose  trades  and 
anterior  occupations  render  them  most  eligible. 

The  Finnish  nation  has  its  own  army,  composed  of  bat- 
talions of  riflemen  and  a  regiment  of  cavalry,  which,  witli 
the  aid  of  Russian  artillery,  are  charged  with  the  defence 
of  the  country  and  the  protection  of  the  Russian  frontier 
on  that  side. 

Besides  the  regular  army  above  mentioned,  the  Russian 
forces  include  the  following  troops,  formed  specially  on 
ethnographical  and  historical  bases :  the  Cossacks ;  the 
Circassian  militia,  or  Tcherkesses,  as  they  are  generally 
called ;  the  squadron  of  Tatares  of  the  Crimea ;  and  the 
Turkoman  militia. 

Most  of  the  nomad  tribes  of  the  steppes  of  Asia,  as  well 
as  the  Laplanders  and  the  Mongolian  tribes,  are  still  ex- 
empt from  permanent  military  service.  In  time  of  war 
the  former  act  as  local  militia,  as  need  may  require,  serv- 
ing principally  to  keep  up  the  outposts,  as  train  guards, 
foragers,  scouts,  and  on  other  auxiliary  services. 

Russia  is  divided  into  fifteen  military  districts,  which 
comprise  also  Finland,  Siberia,  the  Caucasus,  the  Transcas- 
pian  region,  and  Turkistan.  The  Caucasian  troops  used 
to  form  an  army  by  themselves,  but  they  are  now  incor- 
porated in  the  general  organization,  and  bear  merely  the 
name  of  "  troops  of  the  military  district  of  the  Caucasus." 

At  the  head  of  each  military  district  is  a  general,  who 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY  227 

is  often  at  the  same  time  governor-general  of  the  region. 
In  other  districts,  as,  for  instance,  in  those  of  Moscow  and 
"Wilna,  these  two  offices  are  shared  by  two  generals.  The 
chiefs  of  the  military  districts  are  directly  subordinated 
to  the  Minister  of  AVar.  The  troops  are  divided  into 
corps,  composed  of  all  the  arms,  together  with  the  neces- 
sary auxiliary  troops.  The  corps,  which  in  time  of  peace 
and  in  time  of  war  forms  the  largest  administrative  and 
strategic  unity,  can  thus,  if  necessary,  act  quite  independ- 
ently. In  time  of  peace  the  commanders  of  corps  depend 
upon  the  commander  of  the  military  district.  In  war  time 
these  corps  are  formed  into  armies,  to  which  are  added,  as 
need  may  be,  irregular  troops,  siege  artillery,  and  other 
auxiliaries. 

The  regular  infantry  comprises  48  divisions  of  4  regi- 
ments each ;  of  which  3  are  of  Guards,  4  of  grenadiers, 
and  41  of  the  army  ;  55  battalions  of  riflemen  ;  109  re- 
serve battalions,  which  are  transformed  in  war  time  into 
the  same  number  of  regiments ;  164  depot  battalions  ;  32 
battalions  of  the  line  ;  and  13  local  battalions — represent- 
ing in  war  time  a  total  force,  not  including  officers,  of 
1,371,926  foot-soldiers. 

The  Kussian  Guards,  stationed  at  St.  Petersburg  and 
"Warsaw,  composed  of  the  finest  men  of  the  whole  Kussian 
nation,  accustomed  to  exercise  and  manoeuvre  constantly 
under  the  eyes  of  the  Tsar,  and  being  almost  always  com- 
manded by  some  member  of  the  imperial  family,  form  a 
picked  corps,  wdiich  for  exterior  brilliancy,  perfect  drilling, 
and  precision  of  movements  is  unequalled.  In  the  ranks 
of  the  Guards  the  members  of  the  imperial  family  serve 
as  simple  officers,  while  the  staff  is  made  up  of  the  most 
distinguished  military  men  of  the  empire.  The  chiefs, 
who  until  quite  lately  were  chosen  exclusively  from  the 
highest  aristocracy  of  the  country,  are  now  selected  from 


228  THE  RUSSIAN   ARMY 

among  the  most  eminent  and  experienced  generals  and 
colonels  of  the  army,  irrespective  of  birth. 

The  Kussian  infantry  is  remarkable  for  its  firmness  and 
its  stoicism,  as  the  walls  of  Sebastopol  and  the  intrench- 
ments  of  Shipka  bear  eloquent  witness.  ]^ever,  up  to 
now,  has  a  Russian  troop,  large  or  small,  yielded  arms  in 
hand.  But  how  many  examples  are  there  where  a  hand- 
ful of  men,  surrounded  by  a  stronger  and  more  numerous 
hostile  force,  have  resisted  and  fought  until  the  last  man 
has  fallen !  The  attack  of  the  infantry  is  vigorous  and 
rapid.  When  it  rushes  upon  the  enemy,  its  united  "  hur- 
rah," drowning  all  other  sounds,  has  carried  many  a  ram- 
part, and  often  put  the  foe  to  confusion  without  the  aid  of 
bayonets. 

Of  late  the  Russian  infantry  has  achieved  remarkable 
precision  in  shooting.  During  target  practice  in  peace 
time  it  is  considered  nothing  extraordinary  if  60  or  70  per 
cent,  of  the  bullets  hit  the  mark.  The  firing  discipline, 
too,  even  in  the  most  critical  moments,  is  very  remarkable. 
Towards  the  end  of  the  famous  Khiva  campaign  a  small 
troop  of  eight  battalions,  two  batteries,  and  a  thousand 
Cossacks  was  sent  to  establish  order  among  the  Turkoman 
tribes  dwelling  in  the  parts  to  the  west  of  the  oasis.  These 
Turkomans  refused  to  fulfil  the  conditions  of  peace  ac- 
cepted by  the  Khan  of  Khiva. 

On  the  night  of  July  15th  (2Tth)  the  little  troop  was 
encamped  in  a  square  in  the  neighborhood  of  the  village 
of  Tchandir,  not  far  from  the  fortress  of  Illalle.  On  one 
side  was  a  stretcli  of  gardens  following  the  line  of  the 
irrigation  canal  of  Schah-Abat ;  on  the  other  three  sides 
was  a  plain  intercepted  by  innumerable  canals  and  dotted 
here  and  there  with  sand-hills.  It  was  decided,  without 
regard  to  the  darkness,  that  Ave  should  break  up  the  camp 
at  one  o'clock  in  the  night,  in  order  at  daydawn  to  attack 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY 


229 


the  Turkomans,  whom  ^xe  be- 
lieved to  be  gathered  at  a  dis- 
tance of  about  ten  miles.  The 
start,  however,  was  delayed  until 
two  o'clock.  The  cavalry  opened 
the  march,  which  was  a  mistake. 
The  infantry  had  already  left  its 
quarters,  and  was  advancing  ir- 
regularly towards  the  starting- 
point,  where,  mingled  with  the 
artillery,  it  stopped,  waiting  for 
the  Cossacks  to  pass,  so  that  it 
could  take  its  place  in  the  column. 
In  a  word,  the  troop  was  in  a  po- 
sition where  it  was  least  prepared 
to  meet  an  attack,  and  that,  too, 
in  the  middle  of  the  night,  and 
in  darkness  such  as  no  inhabit- 
ant of  the  North  can  conceive. 

Hardly  had  the  first  squadrons,  with  Prince  Eugene  de 
Leuchtenberg  at  their  head,  started  along  the  road,  than 
suddenly  the  air  trembled  with  clamor,  howls,  and  savage 
war-cries  from  a  crowd  of  several  thousand  men,  and  seven 
Turkoman  tribes,  men  and  women  together,  fell  upon  our 
troop.  Our  squadrons  were  flung  back  upon  the  rest  of 
the  cavalry  by  force  of  the  shock  upon  the  infantry.  The 
confusion  was  terrible.  We  could  not  see  the  confusion, 
for  it  was  too  dark,  but  we  felt  it.  Ko  more  could  we 
distinguish  friends  from  enemies.  At  this  moment  I  was 
crowded  in  the  midst  of  a  group  of  Cossacks,  and  my  horse 
was  pushed  gently  and  slowly,  as  if  by  waves,  first  one 
way,  then  the  other.  At  first  not  a  single  shot  was  heard, 
but  only  the  dull  thud  of  sabres  strilcing  human  bodies  and 
the  lamentable  cries  of  the  wounded.     Suddenly  there  was 


SENTRY THE  PAUL  REGIMENT 


230  THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY 

a  flash  and  a  glare  in  front  of  us,  and  a  violent  explosion, 
then  a  second,  and  a  third.  The  rocket  battery,  being 
among  the  first  squadrons,  had  succeeded,  thanks  to  the 
darkness,  in  placing  its  stands  right  in  the  middle  of  the 
enemy.  Unfortunately  the  rockets  burst  without  rising. 
Probably  they  had  got  wet,  and  tlie  heat  had  split  them. 
However,  the  explosions  frightened  the  Turkomans,  and 
had  the  result  of  forming  for  a  moment  a  little  opening 
in  the  mass  of  the  combatants.  Then  1  heard  behind  me 
an  energetic  voice,  "  Make  way !"  and  two  companies  of 
the  second  battalion  of  Turkistan  riflemen  passed  through 
the  midst  of  the  Cossacks,  and  dashed  to  the  spot  where 
the  battery  had  taken  its  stand.  I  joined  the  right  wing 
of  the  first  company.  "Fire!"  re-echoed  the  word  of 
command,  and  a  discharge  was  heard  so  uniform  that  it 
sounded  like  a  single  shot.  "  Fire!"  I  heard  immediately 
alongside,  and  another  similar  discharge  followed.  "  Fire!" 
a  little  farther,  and  yet  farther,  and  then  farther  still,  to 
the  right  of  where  I  was,  one  volley  after  another ;  and 
at  last,  in  the  distance  near  the  gardens,  we  heard  tlie 
rolling  of  the  cannon.  Eight  successive  rounds  were  fired 
by  the  companies  near  where  I  was,  and  in  peace  time, 
during  reviews,  I  have  often  heard  worse  firing.  Between 
the  second  and  the  third  rounds  a  group  of  Turkomans 
dashed  through  the  first  company  and  killed  four  soldiers, 
but  this  did  not  prevent  the  regularity  of  the  firing.  The 
company  was  there,  standing  firmly  as  if  it  had  not  even 
remarked  this  little  episode,  waiting  all  attention  for  an- 
other command  to  fire.  When  the  sun,  with  the  rapidity 
usual  in  the  East,  rose  on  the  horizon,  our  troop  was  found 
to  be  drawn  up  in  a  semicircle,  one  company  by  the  side 
of  the  other,  in  an  order  as  exact  as  if  the  manoeuvre  had 
been  executed  in  broad  daylight  and  by  special  word  of 
command.     It   was  the  regular  volley  firing  which  had 


THE   RUSSIAN   ARMY 


231 


shown  the  battahons  their  places.  If  the  firing  had  been 
confused  and  irregular,  the  troops  would  not  have  been 
able  to  discover  their  whereabout  in  the  general  chaos. 
In  the  camp  lay  pell-mell  the  dead  and  the  wounded, 
Turkomans  and  Russians.     The  chief  of  the  detachment. 


AN    OLD    VETERAN 


General  Galowatscheff,  and  the  chief  of  his  staff,  ^vere 
both  wounded  with  sabre  cuts.  In  front  of  our  compa- 
nies was  piled  up  in  a  compact  mass  of  fallen  enemies,  and 
in  the  distance  the  horizon  was  literally  covered  by  the 
tall  caps  of  the  fleeing  Turkomans. 


232  THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY 

But  the  quality  which  above  all  things  distinguishes 
the  Russian  infantry  soldier  is  his  capacity  of  enduring 
without  exhaustion  all  the  fatigues  of  campaign  life,  and 
of  making  the  longest  and  most  difficult  marches  without 
losing  his  strength  and  courage. 

During  General  Gourko's  expedition  on  the  other  side 
of  the  Balkans,  the  infantry  sometimes  marched  without 
a  halt  thirty  miles,  and  then  began  immediately  to  fight. 

The  Turkistan  army  during  its  campaign  against  Khiva 
in  1873,  after  a  two  months'  march  through  steppes  and 
the  wildest  deserts,  arrived  on  May  11th  on  the  banks  of 
the  Amu-Daria  with  only  six  men  sick  in  the  ambulance, 
although  the  troop  had  suffered  during  this  expedition  all 
imaginable  privations. 

The  very  first  day  the  troop  was  caught  in  the  envi- 
rons of  the  Dchisak  Mountains  by  a  blizzard,  in  which 
several  of  the  natives  following  the  army  as  militiamen 
and  camel-drivers  perished  of  cold.  Among  the  Russian 
soldiers  no  fatal  accident  happened,  thanks  to  the  pres- 
ence of  mind  of  the  officers,  who  organized  games,  told 
the  men  stories,  and  tried  to  occupy  them  in  a  variety  of 
ways  in  order  to  prevent  them  falling  asleep.  One  com- 
mander of  a  battalion  punished  a  soldier  who  had  lost 
his  horse -brush  simply  for  the  purpose  of  showing  the 
other  men  that  the  blizzard  was  not  to  be  allowed  to  in- 
terfere with  the  service. 

When  the  Sixteenth  Battalion  arrived  on  horseback  at 
Shipka,  it  attacked,  and  after  serious  losses  took  by  storm, 
a  height  which  the  Turks  had  had  time  to  capture  from 
our  men.  But  scarcely  had  this  height  been  captured  by 
the  brave  battalion  when  the  Russian  signal  of  "  retreat " 
w^as  heard,  and  an  aide  -  de  -  camp  dashed  forward  to  an- 
nounce that  the  Russian  forces  at  the  other  points  were 
beginning  to  retire.     Consequently  the  Sixteenth  Battal- 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY  233 

ion  abandoned  the  position  that  it  had  so  dearly  won. 
But  the  signal  turned  out  to  be  false,  and,  as  we  after- 
wards learned,  had  been  given  by  the  Turks.  Immediately 
the  chiefs  took  measures  to  restore  order.  General  Ra- 
detzky  himself  came  up  to  the  Sixteenth  Battalion  and 
gave  the  order  to  retake  the  height.  The  commander  of 
the  battalion  demonstrated  to  the  general  the  utter  im- 
possibility of  this  undertaking  after  the  losses  that  the 
battalion  had  sustained.  The  soldiers  were  scattered 
among  the  bushes,  and  the  Third  Company  had  entirely 
disappeared.  It  was  late,  and  for  that  reason  the  colonel 
asked  permission  to  retake  the  position  the  next  morning. 
"  Try,  perhaps  you  will  succeed,"  replied  Eadetzky,  with 
his  usual  cordial  and  smiling  expression.  The  battalion 
"  tried,"  but  did  not  succeed,  and  overwhelmed  by  the 
enemy's  fire,  intrenched  itself  in  the  middle  of  the  slope. 
The  next  day,  early  in  the  morning,  it  was  decided  to 
take  the  height  in  a  compact  mass.  Those  behind  were 
to  push  on  those  in  front.  But  scarcely  had  the  battalion 
risen  out  of  its  trenches  than  a  loud  voice  called  out  in 
pure  Russian  from  the  summit  of  the  hill,  "The  devil  take 
you,  are  you  mad  ?"  The  signal  of  retreat  had  not  reached 
the  Third  Company  of  the  Sixteenth  Battalion,  which  had 
remained  innocently  on  the  height,  and,  not  knowing 
Avhere  the  others  were,  the  valiant  company  had  repelled 
all  night  long  the  attacks  of  the  Turks  on  the  one  side, 
and  the  attacks  of  its  own  battalion  on  the  other. 

The  costume  of  the  Russian  infantry  soldier  is  simple, 
and  adapted  for  service  in  the  most  varied  climates.  It 
consists  of  a  cloth  coat  with  tails,  and  short  trousers 
tucked  into  long  boots.  The  overcoat  is  a  long;  garment 
of  coarse  gray  cloth.  This  latter  vestment  has  given  rise 
to  the  familiar  and  affectionate  appellation  common  in 
Russia,  "our  dear   gray  soldiers,"  by  which  is   also  ex- 


234 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY 


pressed  their  simple  modesty  and  ready  self-denial.     On 
liis  head  the  infantry  soldier  wears  a  cloth  cap  without  a 

peak  as  working  and 
^  undress  uniform,  and 
a  round  fur  cap  on 
parade  duty.  During 
the  great  summer  heats 
the  uniform  is  replaced 
by  a  white  blouse. 
The   Caucasus  and 


DRAGOONS 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY  235 

Turkistan  troops  wear  all  the  summer  white  caps,  with  a 
sort  of  tassel  hanging  over  the  nape  of  the  neck.  In 
Turkistan  the  soldiers  wear  trousers  of  red  skin.  As  re- 
gards the  accoutrement  of  the  Russian  infantry  soldier, 
it  may  be  remarked  that  he  is  a  little  too  heavily  loaded, 
for  besides  cartridges,  provisions  for  four  days,  and  a  tent, 
he  carries  also  all  the  iinpedimenta  that  he  might  need 
when  campaigning.  This  fact,  however,  has  the  advan- 
tage of  lightening  the  baggage  train  and  facilitating  rapid 
mobilization.  When,  furthermore,  thanks  to  the  strength 
and  abnegation  of  the  Russian  soldier,  the  weight  of  pro- 
visions can  be  augmented  to  the  extreme  limit,  you  will 
often  see,  especially  in  Asia,  infantry  cross  immense  dis- 
tances without  any  baggage  train  whatever,  and  without 
a  single  superfluous  man  in  the  ranks. 

This  circumstance  constitutes  in  Asia  an  enormous  su- 
periority over  the  English,  whose  fabulous  baggage  train 
and  mass  of  camp-followers,  who  are  useless  in  combat, 
will  sooner  or  later  be  fatal  to  the  Indian  army. 

The  Russian  regular  cavalry  is  composed  of  57  regi- 
ments of  G  squadrons  each,  and  56  depot  squadrons,  rep- 
resenting on  a  war  footing,  exclusive  of  officers,  95,314 
horsemen.  The  immense  herds  of  horses  {taboun)  which 
graze  on  the  vast  prairies  of  southern  Russia,  and  in  the 
steppes  of  the  Turkomans,  the  Kalmucks,  and  the  Bash- 
kirs, furnish  the  Russian  cavalry  with  material  of  a  rich- 
ness unequalled  in  the  other  States  of  Europe.  All  these 
horses  present  an  endless  variety  of  race,  from  the  tall 
Argamac  down  to  the  Bashkir,  the  latter  a  small  horse, 
but  very  tenacious  and  enduring.  It  would,  however, 
take  too  long  to  describe  the  different  breeds  in  detail ; 
it  suffices  here  to  say  that  all  the  native  animals  have 
been  improved  in  a  multitude  of  stud  farms  by  crosses 
with  Arab  and  Eno-lish  horses.    Hitherto  these  stud  farms 


236  THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY 

have  been  the  principal  purveyors  of  cavalry  horses.  No 
country  can  dispose  of  so  many  well-mounted  horsemen  as 
Russia.  The  regular  cavalry  has  especially  improved  of 
late  years,  since  the  old  riding-school  principles  have  been 
modified  and  greater  liberty  left  both  to  horse  and  horse- 
man to  develop  their  natural  dispositions.  Since  all  the 
Russian  cavalry  soldiers  have  been  transformed  into  dra- 
goons, the  uniforms  are  not  so  ornate  and  brilliant  as  they 
are  in  other  European  States ;  but,  thanks  to  the  magnifi- 
cent horses  and  to  the  superb  bearing  and  easy  grace  of 
the  men,  the  Russian  cavalry  is  still  very  imposing  in  as- 
pect. Its  training  is  very  complete,  and  it  is  drilled  with 
a  view  to  operating  on  all  kinds  of  ground.  In  serried 
columns  it  jumps  deep  ditches,  hedges,  and  ramparts  ;  it  is 
drilled  to  swim  across  rivers  and  lakes ;  as  dragoons  the 
men  are  also  trained  to  fight  on  foot,  and  several  of  the 
regiments  are  not  inferior  to  the  infantry  in  target  prac- 
tice. The  consequence  is  that  the  cavalry  in  large  masses, 
and  in  common  with  its  horse  artillery,  can  act  in  an  en- 
tirely independent  manner  without  the  assistance  of  in- 
fantry, and  when  well  commanded  it  constitutes  a  re- 
doubtable force. 

The  artillery  is  composed  of  51  brigades  (303  batteries) 
on  foot,  30  horse  batteries,  24  brigades  of  reserves  (144 
batteries),  representing  a  total  force  of  3780  guns.  In  this 
number  are  included  also  the  Cossack  batteries.  The  for- 
tress artillery  is  composed  of  42  battalions. 

The  Russian  artillery  is  armed  with  good  cannons ;  both 
olRcers  and  gunners  are  thoroughly  masters  of  their  spe- 
cialty; and  the  excellence  of  the  horses  enables  the  artil- 
lery to  surmount  difficulties  of  ground  in  an  astonishing 
manner.  The  infantry  have  the  highest  consideration  for 
cannon,  and  consider  it  a  terrible  disgrace  to  abandon  a 
gun  to  the  enemy.     For  the  capture  of  a  gun  from  the^ 


CHEVALIER    GUARD 


enemy  the  statutes  give  the  cross  of  St.  George.  The  de- 
fence of  a  battery  in  position  is  entirely  the  business  of 
the  infantry  that  covers  it.  The  artillerymen  consequent- 
ly carrv  no  other  fire-arms  but  their  revolvers.  This 
seems  to  us  a  mistake,  for  there  may  be  occasions  when 
the  artillery  may  have  to  defend  itself. 

The  other  auxiliary  troops,  like  the  engineers,  sappers 
and  miners,  signal-men,  balloonists,  and  ambulance  corps, 
are  all  organized  in  the  manner  which  the  modern  science 
of  warfare  has  found  to  be  the  best. 

The  Russian  miners  have  long  been  famous,  and,  thanks 


238  THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY 

to  the  efforts  and  personal  knowledge  of  General  Todleben 
in  subterranean  war,  have  acquired  altogether  exceptional 
skill. 

In  the  irregular  Russian  array  our  attention  is  first  at- 
tracted to  the  Cossacks.  This  military  force,  unique  in  its 
kind,  forms  in  its  present  state  the  connecting  link  be- 
tween the  regular  and  the  irregular  troops. 

In  war  time  the  Cossacks  can  keep  under  arms  155 
regiments  of  cavalry,  20  battalions  of  infantry,  and  38  bat- 
teries of  horse  artillery.  But  in  time  of  peace  only  about 
half  these  troops  serve ;  the  others  stay  at  home  and  at- 
tend to  their  peaceful  occupations.  The  Cossacks  of  the 
Don  alone  send  to  war  62  regiments  of  cavalry  and  22 
batteries,  of  which  22  regiments  and  8  batteries  serve  also 
in  times  of  peace.  In  each  division  of  regular  cavalry 
there  is,  in  time  of  peace,  one  regiment  of  Cossacks. 

The  military  education  of  the  Cossack  begins  while  he 
is  still  in  the  cradle,  for  the  first  sounds  that  his  ear 
catches  are  the  warlike  words  of  the  songs  by  which  he  is 
rocked  to  sleep.  All  the  Cossack  children's  games  are  of 
a  warlike  nature,  and  almost  before  the  boys  have  learned 
to  walk  they  are  placed  on  horseback.  The  Cossacks  are 
fine  tall  men,  with  bronzed  complexions  and  very  ener- 
getic expressions ;  their  women  are  renowned  for  their 
beauty.'  The  Cossack  and  his  strong  little  horse  form  one. 
His  costume  is  simple  and  imposing,  without  any  glitter- 
ing and  useless  ornaments  that  would  only  help  the  enemy 
to  discover  him.  He  wears  no  spurs,  and  all  his  arms  are 
so  well  contrived  that  they  never  make  the  slightest  noise. 
Nolon  says  of  them,  "  A  hundred  Cossacks  make  less  noise 
than  a  single  regular  cavalry  soldier." 

On  active  service  the  Cossack  is  the  soul  and  the  eye  of 
the  army,  or  rather  its  pointer-dog.  He  seems  to  smell 
the  enemy  where  no  one  even  thinks  of  his  existence.    The 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY 


239 


Cossack  and  liis  horse  do  not  know  what  fatigue  means, 
and  no  one  has  yet  been  able  to  discover  when  either  of 
them  takes  rest.  Even  when  slumbering  they  seem  to  be 
watching,  and  at  any  and  every  instant  they  are  ready  to 


CIRCASSIAN   COSSACKS   OF   THK   EMPEROR'S    ESCORT 


240  THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY 

act.  The  Cossack  finds  his  way  everywhere,  and  glides  fur- 
tively across  the  ground  occupied  by  the  enemy.  If  a  com- 
mander wants  to  send  a  communication  to  a  distant  column 
whose  exact  situation  he  does  not  himself  know,  he  simply 
gives  the  letter  to  a  Cossack,  who  is  bound  to  find  a  way 
of  delivering  it.  As  guerillas  the  Cossacks  have  not  their 
equals.  They  give  the  enemy  not  a  moment's  rest  night 
or  day,  and  always  appear  at  the  point  where  they  are 
least  expected.  Next  to  the  terrible  winter,  it  was  the 
Cossacks  who  contributed  most  to  the  extermination  of  the 
French  in  1S12.  An  enemy's  train,  however  close  it  may 
be  behind  the  troops,  can  never  be  sure  of  escaping  the 
attack  of  the  Cossacks.  They  appear  all  of  a  sudden,  and 
attack  with  lightning  rapidity,  but  in  the  force  of  their 
shock  they  are  inferior  to  the  regular  cavalry.  The  con- 
sequence is,  that  if  they  happen  to  find  themselves  sud- 
denl}''  face  to  face  with  regular  cavalry,  they  disperse  like 
a  cloud  on  the  horizon,  but  soon  come  back  from  an  oppo- 
site direction.  The  Cossack  fights  as  well  on  foot  as  on 
horseback,  and  he  is  a  very  skilful  sliot.  When  a  troop  of 
Cossacks  happens  to  be  surprised  by  superior  forces,  and 
cannot  retreat  or  take  up  a  tenable  position,  the  men  make 
tlieir  docile  horses  lie  down,  to  serve  them  as  ramparts. 

Among  the  privileges  of  the  Cossacks  must  be  mentioned 
one  belonging  peculiarly  to  those  of  the  Ural.  These 
Cossacks  are  ardent  fishermen,  and  in  the  days  of  the  Tsar 
Alexis  Michailowitsch  they  obtained  the  right  of  barring 
with  a  weir  the  upper  waters  of  the  Ural,  to  prevent  the 
fish  ascending  the  river  above  their  territory.  In  return 
for  this  privilege  they  send  every  year  to  the  imperial 
court,  according  to  old  tradition,  a  present  of  splendid 
sturgeons  and  caviare.  A  refusal  on  the  part  of  the  court 
would  be  regarded  by  them  as  an  immense  affront. 

Of  all  the  Cossacks  those  of  the  Caucasus  (of  the  Terek 


,.>' 


OB" 


THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY  243 

and  the  Kuban)  have  more  than  the  others  preserved  their 
primitive  character  of  pure  warriors,  for  it  is  scarcely  a 
quarter  of  a  century  since  eacli  one  of  them,  while  defend- 
ing the  frontier  against  the  enemy,  was  incessantly  ex- 
posed to  the  aggressions  and  ravages  of  the  wikl  mount- 
aineers of  the  Caucasus.  These  Cossacks  wear  the  Tcherkess 
or  Circassian  costume,  and  ride  on  Kabardin  horses,  which 
are  remarkable  for  their  endurance  and  their  easy  and 
rapid  gait — so  easy  that  even  a  bad  rider  can  travel  on 
them  the  longest  distances  without  fatigue.  The  Kabar- 
din horse  will  walk  five  miles  an  hour,  and  his  rider  will 
simply  have  the  impression  of  sitting  in  a  swing  very  gen- 
tly moved.  I  have  often  ridden  fifty  miles  a  day  on  one 
of  these  horses  without  feeling  the  slightest  fatigue. 

The  methods  of  fighting  and  the  warlike  habits  of  the 
Tcherkesses  have  been  adopted  by  the  Cossacks  of  the 
Caucasus.  Their  villages,  situated  along  the  rivers  Ku- 
ban, Laba,  and  Terek,  used  to  form  what  was  called  the 
military  line,  and  that  is  why  these  Cossacks  received  the 
name  of  Cossacks  of  the  Line.  During  nearly  three  cen- 
turies, and  up  to  the  second  half  of  the  present  century, 
they  were  fighting  day  and  night  with  their  wild  mount- 
aineer neighbors.  All  along  the  frontier  were  always 
posted,  on  high  lookout  scaffolds,  sentinels  whose  experi- 
enced eye  watched  the  heights  and  the  plains  on  the  other 
side  of  the  river.  In  every  village  there  was  a  cannon 
that  warned  the  neighboring  towns  of  the  approach  of 
danger. 

The  Cossacks,  with  their  women  and  children,  are  busy 
with  the  hay  harvest.  Before  them,  beyond  the  river,  is 
a  picturesque  scene — fertile  prairies,  woods,  clumps  of  trees 
— and  beyond  in  the  distance  the  long  chain  of  the  Cau- 
casus, with  its  peaks  capped  with  eternal  snow.  But  the 
Cossacks  are  on  the  alert ;  for  during  several  days  in  sue- 


244  THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY 

cession  they  have  seen  cohimns  of  smoke  in  the  mountains. 
When  they  want  to  gather  together,  the  mountaineers  sig- 
nal to  each  other  by  lighting  fires.  Suddenly  a  cannon- 
shot  is  heard  in  the  distance.  In  the  Cossack's  ears  this 
shot  sounds  like  a  plaintive  and  desperate  cry  of  distress. 
Other  nearer  shots  follow.  The  sickles  and  rakes  are 
thrown  down,  and  everybody  hastens  back  to  the  village. 
The  Cossack  girds  on  his  pistol  and  poniard,  slings  his 
sword  over  his  shoulder,  and  loads  his  gun,  while  his  wife 
and  daughter  saddle  his  horse.  In  a  few  minutes  the 
troop  is  ready,  and  dashes  along  at  full  speed  to  help  the 
neighbors  in  distress,  followed  by  the  prayers  of  the  wom- 
en, and  their  exhortations  to  be  speedy  and  to  be  brave. 

Sometimes  the  Cossacks  arrive  in  time.  Kear  the  vil- 
lage besieged  by  the  Tcherkesses  the  Cossacks  from  all 
the  surrounding  villages  assemble,  and  a  bloody  fight 
begins.  Little  by  little  other  Cossacks  arrive  from  the 
more  distant  villages,  and  the  Tcherkesses,  vanquished 
this  time,  beat  a  retreat.  But  it  also  often  happens  that 
before  aid  can  arrive  the  Tcherkesses  have  had  time  to 
finish  their  horrible  task,  and  the  troop  of  Cossacks  has- 
tening to  succor  tlie  unfortunate  villagers  find  nothing 
but  burning  houses  and  smoking  ruins  strewn  with  the 
mutilated  corpses  of  men,  women,  and  children.  All  the 
cattle  and  a  part  of  the  women  have  been  carried  off. 

On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  that  the  Cossacks  them- 
selves have  assembled  from  the  different  villages  to  make 
an  excursion  into  the  mountains  against  the  Tcherkesses. 
On  these  occasions  they  display  no  less  artfulness  and 
knowledge  of  the  country  than  the  mountaineers  them- 
selves. In  their  turn  they  attack  the  villages  unexpected- 
ly, set  fire  to  them,  kill  the  men,  and  capture  the  cattle, 
but  they  never  touch  the  old  men,  the  women,  or  the  chil- 
dren.    When  the  Cossacks  return  to  their  villages,  young 


%^V\\^. 


OFFICER    OF    THE    CIRCASSIAN    COSSACKS 


and  old  turn  out  to  meet  them.  How  many  loving  hearts 
beat  anxiously  when  the  dear  troop  appears  on  the  hori- 
zon !  What  cries  of  joy,  and  what  bitter  wailings,  too, 
when  the  troop  enters  the  village  I 

The  principal  Cossack  hero  in  this  century  was  Gen- 
eral Steptsoff,  who,  after  innumerable  heroic  exploits,  was 
killed  in  the  Caucasus  Mountains.  His  daring  attacks  on 
the  Tcherkesses  won  him  legendary  renown,  and  his  name 
and  exploits  form  the  theme  of  the  favorite  songs  of  the 
Cossacks. 

The  Caucasian  militia  consists  of  the  irregular  cavalry 
regiments  of  Daghestan  and  of  Kutais ;  of  the  mounted 

16* 


246  THE   RUSSIAN   ARMY 

militia  of  Daghestan,  the  Kuban,  and  the  Terek ;  of  the 
foot  cohort  of  the  Georgians ;  of  the  foot  century  of 
Gourie.  These  regiments  and  this  militia  are  formed  of 
those  same  Tcherkesses,  Kabardins,  Tchetcheres,  Tatares, 
and  other  tribes  of  Caucasian  mountaineers,  Avho  for  two 
centuries  and  a  half  struggled  so  obstinately  against  the 
Tiussians,  and  of  whom  many  have  been  pacified  only 
within  the  past  twenty  years. 

The  Tcherkesses — the  term  now  most  used  in  Europe 
to  designate  the  different  Caucasian  tribes — are  a  wild, 
bellicose,  and  rapacious  nation.  The  Tcherkess  is  a  war- 
rior in  his  very  soul,  sly,  cruel,  and  bloodthirsty.  The  suf- 
ferings of  an  enemy  awaken  in  him  only  a  sensual  smile 
of  enjoyment.  He  tortures  his  prisoner,  kills  him,  and 
mutilates  him  terribly.  How  many  loved  comrades  have 
I  found  with  their  arms  twisted  out  of  joint,  and  other 
parts  of  their  bodies  cut  off  and  stuck  in  their  mouths ! 
The  Tcherkess  is  not  a  fanatic,  but  he  is  a  great  fatalist ; 
and  now  he  is  in  the  Russian  service  he  attacks  with  the 
same  ruthless  ardor  and  bloodthirstiness  the  Mussulman 
with  whom  thirty  years  ago  he  used  to  fight  side  by  side 
against  the  Russians.  He  always  seeks  to  attack  his  ene- 
my on  the  sly,  but  when  he  does  not  succeed  in  surprising 
him,  he  dashes  upon  him  and  displays  prodigious  courage. 
Tcherkess  boys  are  trained  from  their  tenderest  years  to 
ride  and  handle  weapons.  The  Tcherkess  horseman  Avill 
rush  at  full  gallop  into  a  small  court -yard,  and  not  turn 
his  horse  until  he  strikes  his  nose  against  the  wall.  In 
the  same  way  he  will  gallop  towards  a  precipice,  and  turn 
his  horse  only  when  his  fore-feet  are  over  the  abyss.  All 
the  Tcherkess  games  and  dances  are  of  a  warlike  nature. 
One  of  the  most  picturesque  sights  one  can  imagine  is  a 
Tcherkess  fete,  when  these  tall,  dark-skinned  men,  hand- 
some and  muscular,  with  their  swords  and  poniards  drawn, 


THE  RUSSIAN   AKMY 


247 


execute  their  favorite  dance,  the  "  Lesginka,"'  around  a 
Jii-e,  which,  with  its  red  g-hire,  lights  up  their  strong  feat- 
ures and  ilhimines  the  surrounding  woods  and  rocks.  A 
favorite  game  is  to  leaj)  on  horseback  over  the  fire  when 
the  flame  is  at  its  highest.  All  the  natives  of  the  Cau- 
casus carry  arms  up  to  the  present  day,  and  the  Kussian 
Government  finds  it  prudent  not  to  interfere  with  this 
usage.  Still  it  must  appear  strange  to  one  who  travels 
for  the  first  time  in  the  Caucasus  to  find  himself  sur- 
rounded by  people  Avho  are  all  armed  to  the  teeth. 
Dless  oubtthe  Caucasus  is  pacified,  but  travelling  there  is 


A    COSSACK   POST 


248  THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY 

not  completely  safe.  The  Tatares  and  Kurds  in  the 
southern  Caucasus,  and  the  Jangouches  in  the  northern 
districts,  often  indulge  in  brigandage. 

In  European  warfare  the  Tcherkesses  are  very  useful  on 
outpost  duty  and  as  skirmishers.  Even  in  open  battle 
the}^  can  make  very  successful  charges.  In  the  last  Turk- 
ish campaign  it  happened  once  that  a  trench  occupied  by 
the  Turks  was  attacked  by  a  battalion  of  infantry,  but  the 
deadly  fire  preventing  them  from  reaching  the  intrench- 
ments,  order  was  given  to  the  Jangouche  militia  to  mount 
to  the  attack,  and  they  simply  dashed  upon  the  enemy 
like  a  hurricane,  leaped  over  the  defences,  and  massacred 
the  Turks  inside. 

The  war  effective  of  the  irregular  troops  of  the  Cauca- 
sus and  of  the  Crimea  amounts  to  6330  men. 

The  Turkoman  militia,  numbering  2000  men,  is  com- 
posed of  the  newly  subjugated  Teke  Turkomans  of  Merv 
and  of  Ahal-Teke.  It  is  an  entirely  new  force,  whose 
acquaintance  the  Europeans  will  have  the  pleasure  of 
making  when  the  next  campaign  comes.  Until  the  capt- 
ure of  Ahal-Teke,  and  four  years  later  that  of  Merv,  these 
Turkomans  were  chiefly  engaged  in  brigandage.  Like  the 
Cossacks  in  olden  times,  they  were  absolutely  free,  and  it 
was  only  in  war-time  or  for  long  expeditions  that  they 
elected  chiefs,  whom  they  called  Khans.  The  Turkomans 
were  the  real  masters  of  the  immense  desert  between  the 
Amu-Daria  and  the  frontiers  of  Persia  and  Afghanistan. 
They  used  to  make  long  and  prompt  pillaging  excursions. 
One  of  their  best  chiefs,  Tyckma  Sardar,  who  subsequently 
obtained  as  a  reward  for  his  services  the  rank  of  major  in 
the  Turkoman  militia,  told  me  that  he  liatl  raided  with  his 
men  as  far  as  the  shores  of  the  Persian  Gulf. 

The  Turkomans  used  to  rob  the  caravans  and  the  vil- 
lages of  neighboring  countries,  and  returned  home  with 


o 

•r. 


C3 

W 
O 


I 


i\\\  V    ^^  UJ4  »to»*UJ\ff 


1 


■/.^OV  THR        -*>^ 

[TIIfIVER3ITY; 


THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY  251 

abundant  herds  of  cattle,  provisions,  and  all  kinds  of 
merchandise.  But  their  best  and  most  lucrative  booty 
was  man.  The  prisoners  whom  they  took  in  Persia  were 
sold  advantageously  as  slaves  in  the  bazars  of  Bokhara 
and  Khiva.  This  traffic  received  a  serious  blow  in  1S(>T, 
when  the  Emir  of  Bokhara  was  forced  by  the  Russians  to 
prohibit  the  slave-trade  within  his  dominions.  Neverthe- 
less it  was  continued  in  secret.  In  1873,  when  the  Russians 
took  Khiva,  they  liberated  more  than  40,000  Persian 
slaves,  who  had  all  been  sold  by  the  Turkomans.  Now 
the  slave-trade  has  been  entirely  abolished. 

As  the  irrigated  land  in  the  Turkoman  country  is  not 
sufficient  to  give  occupation  to  all  these  turbulent  spirits, 
the  Russian  Government  has  formed  military  troops  of 
them.  The  Turkomans  have  received  this  measure  with 
enthusiasm.  Unfortunately  it  would  cost  too  dear  to  en- 
roll all  those  who  desire  to  enter  the  service,  for  almost 
all  the  Turkomans  are  on  the  list  of  candidates.  If  one 
of  the  men  of  the  militia  dies,  a  hundred  offer  themselves 
for  the  vacancy.  The  only  dream  that  the  Turkomans 
now  have  is  to  show  the  Russian  Tsar  what  they  can  do. 
There  is  every  reason  to  trust  to  their  loyalty.  Nowadays 
you  may  travel  unarmed  with  perfect  safety  from  one  end 
of  the  Turkoman  oasis  to  the  other,  as  I  myself  have  done. 

The  Turkomans  are  a  fine  race,  with  regular  features 
and  very  dark  skins.  This  is  true,  however,  of  the  men 
only,  for  the  women  are  generally  very  ugly.  The  Turko- 
man is  excessively  sympathetic,  brave,  hospitable,  and 
honest  in  his  way.  He  will  rob  a  man  whom  he  does  not 
know  if  he  finds  anything  lying  about  loose,  but  he  never 
breaks  open  a  lock  or  a  door,  and  if  you  lend  him  a  sum 
of  money  on  his  mere  word,  you  may  be  sure  that  he  will 
pay  it  back,  even  if  he  lives  300  leagues  off,  away  in  the 
desert. 


252  THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY 

His  method  of  warfare  is  that  of  all  the  Asiatic  peo- 
ples. The  quality  by  which  he  is  distinguished  above 
all  other  irregular  cavalry  is  the  facility  with  which  he 
traverses  incredible  distances  in  a  short  time.  While  the 
Russians  were  at  war  against  the  Turkomans,  it  often 
happened  that  the  spies  in  the  evening  would  announce 
that  a  Turkoman  troop  had  been  seen  before  dinner- 
time near  a  well  ninety  miles  away,  and  before  the  spy 
had  finished  his  story  the  same  Turkomans  would  be 
upon  us. 

When  the  Turkomans  are  preparing  for  a  campaign, 
they  train  their  big,  strong,  and  swift  Argamac  horses  for 
ten  days  or  a  fortnight  so  that  they  can  run  immense  dis- 
tances without  eating  or  drinking.  For  these  occasions 
the  horses  are  fed  on  a  sort  of  bread  made  of  flour  and 
meat.  The  Turkoman  himself  is  satisfied,  when  needful, 
with  a  loaf  of  wheaten  bread  and  a  few  drops  of  water  a 
day. 

The  entire  Russian  war  effective,  including  officers, 
artillery,  engineers,  train,  etc.,  consists  of : 

Regular  army 1,766,278 

Cossack  troops 145,325 

Irregular  troops. 6,331 

Total 1,917,934 

By  adding  to  these  figures  the  effective  of  the  troops 
not  levied  in  time  of  peace,  say  100,000  men,  we  reach  an 
effective  of  2,000,000  men  for  the  war  footing.  The  Rus- 
sian militia,  which  may  be  called  out  in  times  of  war, 
amounts  to  3,000,000  men. 

The  Russian  oflicers  are  recruited  chiefly  from  two 
different  sources  :  the  Military  Schools,  composed  of  young 
men  who  have  passed  through  the  preliminary  course  of 
the  Cadets'  Corps,  and   the   Ensign   Schools,  or  Junker 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY 


253 


Schools,  where  young  men 
from  tlie  ranks  study  with 
a  view  to  obtaining  ad- 
vancement. The  former 
are  naturally  superior  to 
the  latter.  Besides  these, 
there  are  also  the  young 
men  who  receive  the  rank 
of  officers  of  the  first  grade 
as  a  reward  for  bravery, 
but  do  not  advance  higher 
before  having  passed  the 
necessary  examinations. 

The  Guards  have  a  brill- 
iant corps  of  officers,  for  the 
most  part  rich  and  well-ed- 
ucated young  men ;  as  has 
been  mentioned  above,  sev- 
eral members  of  the  impe- 
rial family  and  of  the  first 
families  of  Russia  serve  as 
officers  in  these  regiments. 
But  the  case  of  the  mass 
of  the  officers  of  the  great 

Russian  army  is  very  different.  The  army  officer  is  not 
remarkable  for  any  exterior  eclat,  but  he  possesses  in 
the  highest  degree  all  the  qualities  that  I  have  noticed 
above  in  speaking  of  the  Russian  soldier.  Xeither  the 
instruction  he  has  gained  in  the  schools  nor  the  reading 
of  those  books  that  excite  young  men's  minds  can  efface 
in  his  nature  those  grand  traits  of  the  Russian  character, 
wliich  are  based  on  love  of  the  Tsar,  of  religion,  and  of  the 
father -land.  Russian  discipline  has  its  peculiar  cachet, 
which  is  also  the  outcome  of  the  national  character ;  it  is 


OFFICER    OF    THE    TURKOMAN    MILITIA 


254  THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY 

unlike  Prussian  discipline  ;  but  it  is  just  as  good,  and  in  the 
hour  of  danger,  when  all  is  lost,  I  believe  that  it  is  even 
superior.  The  colonels  often  use  the  affectionate  and 
familiar  "  thee "  and  "  thou "  in  speaking  to  the  young 
oificers,  and  yet  I  have  never  seen  an  officer  forget  himself 
in  the  presence  of  his  chief,  even  though  he  might  be  a 
little  drunk. 

How  often  have  I  seen  General  Abramoff  in  Asia  and 
General  Skobeleff  in  Turkey,  far  from  the  enemy,  in  good 
company,  where  the  wine  had  flowed  copiously,  after  hav- 
ing received  a  despatch  that  necessitated  prompt  measures, 
send  immediately  one  of  his  guests  on  an  excursion  from 
which  he  had  a  hundred  chances  of  never  returning,  and 
w4iich  in  Asia  generally  meant  a  journey  of  a  hundred 
miles  or  more !  The  officer  selected  would  rise  immedi- 
ately, hastily  button  his  coat,  and  compose  his  countenance 
to  seriousness,  and  in  a  few  minutes  he  was  gone,  after  a 
hearty  shaking  hands  with  the  general,  and  some  jocose 
scolding  from  his  comrades. 

During  an  expedition  in  the  vallej''  of  Schackrisial,  in 
Turkistan,  while  our  little  troop  was  resting  for  a  few 
hours,  after  having  accomplished  half  the  day's  march, 
the  officers  had  assembled  around  their  chief,  General 
Abramoff,  and  were  breakfasting  on  carpets  under  the 
shade  of  a  gigantic  plane-tree.  Suddenly  a  Kirgheez  ap- 
peared, and  related  that  the  village  where  we  were  to 
pass  the  night  was  occupied  by  a  group  of  the  enemy.  The 
general  then  addressed  me  in  these  words : 

"  G ,  take  ten  Cossacks,  drive  the  enemy  away,  and 

fix  the  resting-places  for  the  troops." 

I  hastened  forward,  gathered  my  Cossacks  together, 
and  returned  towards  the  general  to  report  that  I  was 
ready,  and  to  ask  if  he  had  any  other  orders  to  give  me. 

"  No,"  he  replied,  "  but  you  have  time  to  eat  a  cutlet." 


THE   RUSSIAN   ARMY 


255 


I  confess  that  I  did  not  find  the  cutlet  very  good,  for  I 
realized  perfectly  the  danger  of  my  situation.  As  I  was 
leaving,  a  few  minutes  later,  one  of  the  officers,  command- 
ing a  battery,  called  to  me,  "  Mind  you  choose  a  good 
place  for  the  artillery,  and  not  in  a  marsh,  as  we  were 
yesterday." 

We  see  the  same  scenes,  Avhether  it  is  the  general  or  the 
captain  of  a  company  who  gives  the  orders  ;  and  the  same 
scenes  occur  in  time  of  peace  in  matters  of  daily  service. 


GENERAL    SKOBELEFF 


256  THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY 

The  Russian  army  officer  is  hardly  known  in  Europe, 
and  it  is  quite  possible  that  the  first  impression  he  pro- 
duces is  unfavorable,  on  account  of  his  timidity  and  his 
ignorance  of  the  usages  of  society.  But  the  real  time  to 
see  him  is  when  he  is  campaigning.  Then  this  obscure, 
modest,  and  insignificant  officer  is  suddenly  metamor- 
phosed into  a  giant,  before  whose  courage,  strength,  and 
energy  one  must  bow.  All  his  timidity  has  disappeared, 
and  his  whole  outward  appearance  assumes  a  new  aspect. 
He  always  advances  at  the  head  of  his  men,  and  forms  the 
first  target  for  the  enemy's  bullets.  The  enormous  losses 
in  officers  which  the  Russians  experienced  during  the  last 
Turkish  war  are  evident  testimonies  to  their  courag-e. 
Thus,  for  instance,  the  Orloff  Regiment  of  infantry  and 
the  Fourth  Brigade  of  riflemen  lost  during  the  war  more 
than  100  per  cent,  of  their  officers.  Here  is  a  mathemat- 
ical problem  to  solve  I  At  the  beginning  of  an  engage- 
ment near  Shipka  I  had  in  the  ranks  of  my  troop  only 
twelve  officers  who  had  survived  past  combats,  and  among 
this  number  five  had  come  out  of  hospital  with  wounds  not 
yet  healed. 

The  Russian  officer  never  thinks  of  resting  himself  un- 
til he  has  made  all  the  arrangements  for  his  soldiers,  for 
whom  he  feels  a  fatherly  solicitude.  For  this  care  the 
soldier  requites  him  with  sincere  affection. 

In  speaking  of  the  Russian  officers,  I  have  still  a  few 
words  to  say  about  the  staff.  Formerly  there  was  much 
to  be  criticised  in  this  organization,  but  the  rich  field  of 
instruction  and  exercise  that  it  has  found  in  central  Asia, 
the  great  experience  that  it  acquired  in  the  last  Turkish 
war,  and  the  practical  tendency  which  has  been  given  to 
it  of  late,  place  it  on  a  level  with  the  renowned  German 
staff. 

Formerly  the  staff  was  not  popular  among  the  troops, 


THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY  257 

but  now  that  each  staff-officer,  in  order  to  obtain  advance- 
ment, is  obliged  to  serve  in  the  ranks  of  the  army,  and  as 
many  of  the  staff-officers  have  accomphshed  acts  of  hero- 
ism, this  corps  has  gained  the  full  confidence  both  of  the 
ordinary  officers  and  of  the  soldiers.  As  scouts  the  staff"- 
officers  have  always  distinguished  themselves.  One  of  the 
finest  exploits  of  this  kind  is  the  reconnoissance  of  Lieu- 
tenant-colonel, afterwards  General,  Skobeleff,  in  the  desert 
between  Khiva  and  the  Caspian  Sea,  at  the  end  of  July, 
1S73.  One  of  the  Russian  columns,  while  advancing  from 
the  Caspian  towards  Khiva  through  the  desert,  got  lost  in 
the  sand,  and  was  obliged  to  return  to  Krasnovodsk  with- 
out having  attained  its  end.  After  the  capture  of  Khiva, 
Skobeleff  asked  permission  to  reconnoitre  in  person  the 
desert  route  between  Khiva  and  the  spot  where  the  col- 
umn had  turned  back.  Disguised  as  a  Turkoman,  but  un- 
able himself  to  speak  the  language,  the  brave  lieutenant- 
colonel  went  into  the  desert  accompanied  only  by  two 
faithful  followers,  an  interpreter,  and  his  Russian  servant, 
also  disguised  as  Turkomans.  The  war  was  then  still  go- 
ing on,  and  the  country  that  he  was  to  traverse  was  peo- 
pled by  the  most  savage  inhabitants  of  the  desert,  burning 
with  hatred  of  the  Russians,  who  had  just  vanquished 
them  a  week  ago.  Near  a  well  he  encountered  a  hostile 
troop,  and  saved  himself  only  by  feigning  sickness,  for  he 
knew  that  no  Mussulman,  unless  he  is  a  doctor,  will  come 
near  or  take  any  trouble  about  a  sick  man.  His  servant 
had  to  hide  behind  some  bushes  on  a  sand-hill.  From 
this  excursion  Skobeleff  returned  safely,  after  a  journey 
there  and  back  of  nearly  400  miles,  bringing  with  him 
valuable  topographical  details.  This  expedition  won  him 
his  first  St.  George's  cross. 

As  able  military  theorists  the  Russian  staff-officers  have 
always  been  known,  and  many  of  the  best  works  on  mod- 

17 


258 


THE  RUSSIAN  ARMY 


ern  military  science  have  been  written  by  them.  The  top- 
ographical and  geodesic  corps  are  also  perfect,  and  their 
innumerable  achievements  in  cartography  and  topogra- 
])hy  are  familiar  to  all  the  savants  of  the  universe.  The 
explorations  and  scientific  observations  of  the  staff-officer 
Pezewalsky  in  Mongolia  and  Thibet  are  at  the  present 
time  being  followed  by  all  geographers  with  the  liveliest 
interest. 

In  the  troops  forming  the  army  of  the  Caucasus  and  of 
Turkistan  the  warlike  spirit  is  more  strongly  kept  up  in 
time  of  peace  than  it  is  in  the  troops  of  the  interior — the 
traditions  of  the  past  are  fresher ;  duels  between  the  of- 


THE    CROSS    OF    ST.  GEORGE 


ficers  are  more  frequent.  The  infantry  soldier,  both  of 
the  Caucasus  and  of  Turkistan,  is  an  excellent  horseman, 
often  a  better  horseman  than  many  a  cavalry  officer. 
Hunting  tigers,  wild-boars,  antelopes,  and  roebucks  is  their 
favorite  amusement.  This  occupation  fosters  vigor  and 
presence  of  mind  both  in  officers  and  men. 

In  general,  the  Russian  troops  in  Asia  are  more  practi- 
cal than  others  when  campaigning.  As  soon  as  the  sol- 
dier learns  that  he  will  remain  in  a  place  for  a  day  or  two, 
he  digs  out  an  oven  in  the  first  hillock  he  finds,  and  in  a 
few  hours  he  has  made  some  hot  bread  and  cakes,  of  which 


THE   RUSSIAN  ARMY  259 

tlie  iirst  baked  are  offered  to  the  commander  of  the  troop. 
The  veteran  Turkistan  soldier  never  drinks  water  while 
he  is  marching  in  the  desert,  hut  when  there  comes  a  quar- 
ter of  an  hour's  halt  he  immediately  puts  his  little  teaket- 
tle on  the  fire.  I  wished  to  introduce  this  usage  into  a 
troop  of  the  interior  army  during  the  campaign  in  Turkey, 
but  the  soldiers  preferred  to  rest  rather  than  to  trouble 
about  their  tea  before  reaching  the  bivouac  where  they 
were  to  pass  the  night. 


THE  AUSTRO-HUKGARIAN  ARMY 


[^  consequence  of  the  events  of  the 
year  1866,  the  Austro- Hungarian  mon- 
archy effectuated  a  radical  change  in 
its  mihtary  system.  The  principles 
upon  whicli  the  Prussian  military  con- 
stitution had  been  established  served 
in  general  as  its  basis. 

His  Majesty  the  Kaiser  has  supreme 
command  over  the  entire  armed  force 
of  the  many  parts  of  the  empire,  and 
as  commander-in-chief  he  also  has  the 
power  to  declare  war  or  peace.  The 
political  dualism,  the  division  of  the 
monarchy  into  two  distinct  states  of 
the  empire,  each  of  which  has  its  own 
constitution  and  a  distinct  system  of 
representation,  has  not  been  without 
influence  upon  the  formation  of  the 
mihtary  relations  of  the  imperial  state. 
Fortunately,  indeed,  the  real  strength 
of  the  army  —  the  line  —  exists  as  a 
unified  wdiole,  and  the  existing  army, 
as  such,  is  under  imperial  regulation ; 
but  the  right  of  recruitment  and  of 
legislation  with  reference  to  military 
service  has  been  reserved  to  those  rep- 
resenting in  Parliament  (Reichsrath)  those  countries  in- 
cluded under  the  general  title  of  Cisleithania,  on  the  one 


HALBKRDIER    (eMPEROR's 

body-gcard) 


264  THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  ARMY 

side,  and  to  the  provinces  of  the  Hungarian  crown,  Trans- 
leithania,  on  the  other  side. 

The  Imperial  Ministry  of  War  forms  the  supreme  nu- 
cleus of  the  Avhole  military  power  of  the  monarchy.  It  is 
divided  into  four  sections,  comprising  fifteen  departments, 
in  which  are  united  the  many  branches  of  the  personnel 
of  the  organization,  disjiosition  of  troops,  administration, 
the  affairs  of  justice,  health,  debt,  etc.  The  naval  section, 
with  its  two  departments  for  business,  forms  an  inde2:)end- 
ent  part  of  the  Imperial  Ministry  of  War.  There  is  also 
in  each  of  the  two  parts  of  the  empire  a  Ministry  of  Na- 
tional Defence,  to  whicli  the  affairs  of  the  landwehr  and 
landsturm  are  submitted.  The  landwehren  of  the  single 
parts  of  the  empire  form  bodies  constitutionally  separated 
from  each  other.  Since  the  new  defensive  laws  of  1889, 
the  army  of  first  class,  as  well  as  the  imperial  and  royal 
landwehr,  is  unconditionally  subject  to  the  commands  of 
the  Kaiser,  and  relatively  to  those  of  the  Imperial  Minis- 
ter of  War. 

But  the  restriction  upon  the  employment  of  the  royal 
Hungarian  landwehr  abroad  or  in  other  parts  of  the  em- 
pire has  been  fixed  by  the  decision  of  the  representative 
bodies,  though  it  may  be  employed  without  the  leave  of 
these  bodies  if  there  be  danger  in  delay. 

The  language  of  the  service  is  German,  excepting  in  the 
Hungarian  landwehr,  where  the  Hungarian  and  Croatian 
dialects  prevail. 

The  military  system  is  based  upon  the  required  service 
of  every  man  for  twenty-four  years  after  reacliing  his  ma- 
jority.    The  regular  required  service  is  as  follows : 

1.  In  the  first  class,  ten  years  for  the  army  and  its 
Ersatz  reserve  (substitute  reserve),  that  is,  three  years  in 
line  and  seven  in  reserve ;  ten  years  in  the  Ersatz  reserve 
for  those  directly  appointed  to  the  same  ;  twelve  years  for 


Z 


THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  ARMY  267 

the  armed  force  of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina,  that  is,  three 
years  in  line  and  nine  in  reserve  ;  twelve  years  for  the  ma- 
rine, that  is,  four  years  in  line,  five  in  reserve,  and  three 
in  marine  defence. 

2.  In  the  second  class  (landwehr),  two  years  after  com- 
pletion of  required  service  in  the  standing  army,  or  twelve 
for  those  directly  appointed  to  the  landwehr  or  its  Ersatz 
reserve. 

3.  In  the  third  class  (landsturm),  three  years  before  en- 
tering upon  the  age  for  required  service,  nine  years  for  all 
who  had  left  the  marine  and  the  landwehr,  twenty-one 
years  for  all  who  have  been  appointed  directly  to  the 
landsturm. 

Through  the  increase  of  the  annual  recruit  contingent 
to  the  number  of  103,000  men  for  the  army  of  the  first 
class,  which  was  passed  in  1889,  an  operative  military 
force  of  800,000  men  was  assured. 

In  the  army  of  the  second  class  the  annual  recruit  con- 
tingent for  the  imperial-royal  landwehr  amounts  to  10,000 
men;  for  the  royal  Hungarian  landwehr,  12,500  men. 

The  army  of  the  third  class,  the  landsturm,  is  intended, 
in  case  of  necessity,  to  supply  the  first  and  second  classes, 
to  furnish  the  army  with  the  laboring  forces  necessary  for 
its  requirements,  and,  finally,  to  directly  oppose  the  en- 
emy that  has  forced  its  way  into  the  country.  It  thus 
represents  the  last  resource  of  strength  on  the  part  of  the 
defensive  forces  of  the  country.  It  is  divided  into  two 
summons,  and  consists  of  nine  years'  drill  in  military 
service. 

The  military  law  of  1889,  as  opposed  to  that  of  1868, 
makes  necessary  curtailments  owing  to  the  shortened 
term  of  required  service.  Absolute  exemption  is  wholly 
excluded.  A  one -year  (so  called)  volunteer  service  will 
satisfy  the  military  obligation  of  an  educated  young  man. 


268  THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  ARMY 

He  is  not  allowed,  however,  during  this  volunteer  year  to 
continue  his  professional  studies ;  and  in  case  he  fails  to 
pass  the  examination  of  the  reserve  officer  at  the  expira- 
tion of  this  period,  he  must  continue  his  service  a  second 
year  along  with  the  troops.  These  regulations  cause  at 
present  a  greater  number  of  the  one -year  volunteers  to 
attain  the  rank  of  reserve  officer. 

In  order  to  distribute  the  military  burden  more  equally 
upon  the  shoulders  of  all  the  subjects,  a  war  revenue,  called 
the  military  tax,  is  levied  in  the  Austro-IIungarian  mon- 
archy. Excepting  those  wholly  destitute  and  unable  to 
work,  every  subject  liable  to  service,  unless  on  account  of 
unfitness  he  fails  to  obtain  appointment  and  is  rejected, 
or  emigrates  before  the  completion  of  his  service,  has  to 
pay  an  annual  tax  proportionate  to  his  fortune  or  business 
for  each  year  of  service.  This  sum  varies  between  one  and 
one  hundred  gulden,  and  in  Hungary  between  three  and 
one  hundred.  The  moneys  thus  collected  are  employed 
for  the  support  of  soldiers'  widows  and  orphans. 

It  is  desirable  that  there  should  be  an  increase  in  the 
income  from  the  military  tax,  in  order  that  it  may  be  ad- 
equate for  the  support  of  the  soldiers'  widows  and  or- 
phans, as  intended. 

The  following  difficulties  still  continue  in  the  regulations 
of  the  new  military  law  for  the  army  of  the  second  class : 
the  want  of  unified  management,  the  inequality  of  the 
contingents  as  regards  age  and  training,  the  need  of  one 
common  official  language ;  also  the  restriction  upon  the 
use  of  the  royal  Hungarian  landwehr.  For  mihtary  pur- 
poses it  is  very  desirable  that  these  defects  should  be  re- 
moved, yet  it  is  impossible  under  present  political  circum- 
stances. 

Based  upon  the  rtiilitary  laws  thus  cursorily  described, 
the  organization  has  been  effected.     The  Inspector-gen- 


HUNGARIAN    INFANTRY 


^^^^^^ 


OF  THE 


THE  AUSTRO-IIUNGARIAN  ARMY  271 

ei'ul  of  the  army,  who  oversees  the  instruction  and  train- 
ing of  the  army,  and  also  directs  and  sujjervises  the  more 
important  evolutions  of  the  troops,  is  wholly  responsible 
to  his  Majesty. 

The  oldest  son  of  the  victor  of  Aspern,  his  Imperial 
Highness  Field -marshal  Archduke  Albrecht,  born  1817, 
has  been  intrusted  for  many  years  with  the  position  of 
Imperial  and  Royal  Inspector-general  of  the  army. 

At  the  head  of  the  General's  Staff  is  the  so-called  Chief 
of  the  General's  Staff,  personally  first  in  order  under  the 
immediate  command  of  his  Majesty  the  Kaiser.  Second 
in  order,  he  is  assistant  to  the  Imperial  Ministry  of  War, 
and  generally  directs  his  proposals  to  the  latter,  but  he  is 
also  empowered  to  report  directly  to  his  Majesty  the 
Kaiser  upon  important  matters.  The  Austrian  corps  staff 
of  generals  forms  an  exclusive  officers'  corps,  and  pro- 
motion in  it  is  made  from  the  captain  to  the  chief. 

The  supply  to  the  corps  of  the  General's  Staff  is  as 
follows:  {a)  In  rank  of  captain,  from  officers  with  a 
record  of  at  least  three  years'  successful  service  in  com- 
manding troops,  and  of  at  least  satisfactory  graduation 
from  the  military  school,  or  completion  of  the  final  ex- 
amination of  this  same  school.  The  assignment  to  service 
on  the  General's  Staff  precedes,  without  any  limit  as  to 
time,  the  reception  into  the  corps  of  the  General's  Staff. 
(5)  In  rank  of  major,  from  chiefs  (Rittmeister)  of  all  arms, 
after  passing  the  examination  for  staff-officer  of  the  Gen- 
eral's Staff,  and  after  a  proof  of  practical  qualification. 

The  officers  of  the  General's  Staff  under  occasional 
special  orders  come  in  contact  with  the  troops,  but  they 
.are  separated  from  the  real  life  of  the  inner  circle  of  the 
army.  The  Chief  of  the  General's  Staff  has  charge  of  the 
employment,  equipment,  and  instruction  of  the  corps  of 
the  General's  Staff. 


272  THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  ARMY 

The  duties  of  the  officers  of  the  General's  Staff  are 
service  in  its  six  bureaus,  in  the  war  archive,  in  the  Im- 
perial Ministry  of  War,  and  also  in  the  higher  staffs,  as 
well  as  in  special  military  occupations. 

For  the  purpose  of  military  organization  the  monarchy 
is  subdivided  into  fifteen  military  territorial  districts — that 
is,  into  fourteen  corps  districts  and  one  military  com- 
mandery  or  post. 

The  territory  of  occupation — Bosnia,  Herzegovina,  and 
the  Landschak  of  Novi-Bazar — forms  a  separate  (fifteenth) 
corps  district.  The  leading  posts  of  these  districts  — 
corps  commands,  sometimes  called  military  commands — 
are  as  follows :  first,  the  corps  command  in  Cracow,  in- 
cludes West  Galicia,  Silesia,  and  the  northern  part  of 
Moravia ;  second,  in  Vienna,  includes  Lower  Austria,  the 
middle  and  southern  part  of  Moravia ;  third,  in  Gratz,  in- 
cludes Steiermark,  Karnten,  Krain,  Istria,  Goritz,  and 
Gradisca;  the  fourth  in  Buda-Pesth,  fifth  in  Pressburg, 
sixth  in  Kaschau,  and  the  seventh  in  Temesvar  form  the 
divisions  in  Hungary ;  the  eighth  in  Prague,  and  ninth  in 
Josephstadt,  the  divisions  in  Bohemia;  tenth,  in  Przemysl, 
includes  Middle  Galicia ;  eleventh,  in  Lemberg,  East  Ga- 
licia and  Bukowina ;  twelfth,  in  Hermannstadt,  Sieben- 
biirgen ;  thirteenth,  in  Agram,  Croatia,  and  Sclavonia ; 
fourteenth,  in  Innsbruck,  Tyrol,  Vorarlberg,  Salzburg,  and 
Upper  Austria  ;  fifteenth,  in  Sarajevo,  the  occupation  dis- 
trict ;  the  military  post  in  Zara,  Dalmatia. 

The  mobilizable  commands,  posts,  companies,  and  es- 
tablishments of  the  armed  force  comprise,  as  a  whole,  in 
case  of  war,  the  army  in  the  field.  It  is  organized,  ac 
cording  to  the  provisional  military  circumstances,  into  ai), 
army  corps  of  higher  rank — that  is,  in  companies,  in  corps, 
and  in  armies.  The  companies  are  distinguished  accord- 
ing to  their  combination  in  infantry  or  cavalry  troops. 


\\ 


AUSTRIAN    INFANTRY 


^^-^   OF  THE         v^ 

fUSriVERSITT] 


THE   AUSTRO-HUNGAllIAN   ARMY  275 

The  first  organization  of  the  army  in  the  field  into  the  so- 
€alled  bodies  of  the  army,  the  formation  of  tliis  latter,  as 
well  as  the  arrangement  of  the  commands  and  posts,  com- 
])anies  and  establishments  in  the  same,  are  determined  by 
his  Imperial  and  Royal  Apostolic  Majesty,  as  commander- 
in-chief,  by  means  of  the  military  otdre  de  hatallle. 

The  companies  organized  as  the  army  in  the  field  are 
equipped,  on  mobilization,  with  all  kinds  of  necessary 
military  supplies,  so  that  they  may  be  either  joined  in  a 
corps  or  arranged  in  smaller  armies,  subject  to  the  im- 
mediate order  of  the  commander  of  the  army,  able  in 
either  case,  however,  to  be  employed  independently  for  a 
o-reater  or  less  length  of  time. 

The  infantry  troops,  formed  principally  from  all  kinds 
of  arms,  constitute  the  first  tactical  and  administrative 
body  of  the  army  of  higher  order,  and,  at  the  same  time, 
the  basal  unity  for  the  combination  of  corps  and  arm3^ 
The  infantry  division  regularly  consists  of  two  infantry 
brigades,  composed  of  fourteen  or  fifteen  battalions  of  in- 
fantry and  Jiiger  troops,  three  to  four  squadrons  of  cavalry, 
one  division  of  battery  (twenty-four  cannons)  as  artillery 
of  the  division,  finally  technical  troops  and  the  necessary 
establishments.  The  cavalry  section  consists  regularly  of 
two  cavalry  brigades,  including  four  regiments  of  cavalry, 
one  mounted  division  of  battery,  as  artillery  of  the  di- 
vision (twelve  guns),  and  the  necessary  equipments.  The 
corps  consists  regularly  of  two  or  three  infantry  divisions, 
two  battery  divisions,  as  corps  artillery  (forty-eight  guns), 
the  necessary  technical  troops,  military  pontoon -bridge 
conveyances,  and  finally  the  equipments.  The  commander 
of  the  army  has  the  direction  of  the  greater  cavalry  forces 
in  each  single  corps ;  to  the  commander  of  the  corps,  in 
case  of  necessity — namely,  on  the  march  and  in  battle — 
is  left  the  power  to  unite  the  cavalry  which  has  been  as- 


276  THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN   ARMY 

signed  to  the  divisions  of  infantry,  and  to  dispose  of  the 
same.  The  separate  corps  on  the  march  regularly  form 
the  army  column,  to  which,  in  order  to  make  them  as  in- 
dependent as  possible,  are  assigned  two  lines  or  parts  of 
the  same  (field  magazine  of  supplies,  field  hospital,  etc.), 
both  according  to  the  need  and  the  conditions  of  opera- 
tion. If  a  corps  or  a  company  be  detached  for  a  greater 
or  less  length  of  time  for  the  performance  of  any  inde- 
pendent operations,  or  even  at  the  very  beginning  of  the 
campaign  be  detailed  for  special  services,  such  parts  of  the 
army  are  correspondingly  organized  and  equipped  with 
supplies  and  reserve  outfits  requisite  to  their  self-main- 
tenance in  proportion  to  the  number  of  the  fighting  force 
and  the  task  assigned. 

The  army  bodies  of  higher  order  which,  according  to 
provisional  military  circumstances,  are  placed  under  one 
and  the  same  command,  form  an  army.  This  same  is 
composed  generally  of  the  number  of  corps  or  troop  di- 
visions determined  by  the  ordre  de  hataille,  the  required 
number  of  technical  troops,  military  bridge  conveyances, 
and  the  reserve  outfits  of  second  order.  If  several  armies 
are  ordered  to  operate  on  one  and  the  same  battle-ground, 
^  a  commander-in-chief  of  the  army  is  appointed  by  special 
direction  of  the  highest  authorities.  A  field-marshal  is 
intrusted  with  this  leadership.  The  corps  are  command- 
ed by  the  ordnance-master,  the  divisions  by  field-marshal 
lieutenants. 

The  division  and  distribution  of  the  imperial  and  royal 
army  in  peace  contain  thirty  troop  divisions  of  infantry, 
four  of  artillery  (Lemberg,  Jaroslaw,  Cracow,  and  Vienna), 
sixty-three  infantry  brigades,  six  mountaineer,  nineteen 
cavalry,  and  fourteen  artillery.  The  system  of  supplying 
the  army  from  the  territories — that  is,  the  formation  of  it 
from  military  territories — cannot  be  a  uniformly  perfect 


o 
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0?  THR 


THE  AUSTRO-TIUNGARIAN   ARMY  279 

and  strict  one,  because  of  the  necessary  consideration  of 
the  political  boundaries. 

The  conditions  of  housing  are  for  the  most  part  favor- 
able. The  most  substantial  stipulations  for  a  continuous 
progress  in  this  direction  were  procured  through  the  laws 
on  (quartering.  Infantry,  artillery,  and  technical  troops 
are  almost  altogether  (juartered  in  caserns,  and  only  ex- 
ceptionally, in  Galicia  and  in  the  territory  of  occupation, 
in  barracks.  The  cavalry  is  stationed,  for  the  most  part,  in 
caserns  and  barracks,  but  in  a  few  cases  among  the  citizens. 

The  first  class,  according  to  the  single  weapons,  next 
consists  of  102  regiments  of  infantry,  composed  of  four 
field  battalions,  each  of  which  numbers  four  field  com- 
panies and  one  Ersatz  battalion  of  four  Ersatz  companies. 
In  time  of  peace,  only  the  cadres  are  present  in  these 
latter.  In  case  of  mobilization,  one  to  two  additional 
staffs  are  appointed  to  the  Ersatz  battalions.  The  field 
com])anies  are  numbered  from  I  to  10,  the  Ersatz  com- 
panies from  1  to  4.  The  regiments  themselves  are  des- 
ignated consecutively  by  number,  but  usually  have  in 
addition  the  name  of  the  commander. 

The  peace  establishment  of  a  regiment  of  infantry,  con- 
sisting of  staff.  4  field  battalions,  and  the  staff  of  the 
Ersatz  battalion,  amounts  to  To  officers,  1422  men,  and 
5  horses. 

In  peace,  one-half  of  the  captains  in  the  infantry  are 
mounted,  and  these  are  obliged  to  furnish  their  own 
horses.  In  case  of  mobilization,  each  captain  providing  a 
horse  for  himself  receives  a  ration  of  forage. 

The  peace  strength  of  the  Austro-IIungarian  infantry 
in  line,  estimated  according  to  the  normal  establishment 
in  peace,  consists  of  408  field  battalions,  together  with  102 
Ersatz  battalion  cadres,  amounting  to  about  7300  officers, 
145,000  men,  and  500  horses. 


280  TFIE   AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  ARMY 

In  war,  these  numbers  are  considerably  increased.  The 
war  establishment  of  a  field  or  Ersatz  company  regularly 
amounts  to  4  officers  and  232  men ;  at  times,  5  officers 
and  228  men.  That  of  the  regiment,  IfO  officers  and  4871 
men,  of  whom  98  officers  and  4549  men  are  in  fighting 
order.  In  war  order,  the  whole  infantry  in  line,  with  its 
510  field  and  Ersatz  battalions,  together  with  the  staff, 
presents  a  force  of  about  11,200  officers,  496,800  men,  and 
5800  horses. 

The  Jager  troop  is  composed  of  the  Tyrolese  regiment 
and  30  independent  battalions  of  field  Jiiger.  The  regi- 
ment first  mentioned  consists  of  12  field  battalions  and  3 
Ersatz  battalions,  to  each  of  which  latter,  in  peace,  1  staff 
is  appointed.  Each  of  the  field  battalions  is  made  up  of 
4  field  companies,  numbered  from  1  to  48 ;  each  of  the 
Ersatz  battalions  consists  of  4  companies,  numbered  from 
1  to  12. 

The  42  Jiiger  battalions,  along  with  their  42  Ersatz 
companies,  enroll  in  their  ranks,  in  peace,  812  officers,  20,- 
504  men,  and  85  horses.  Over  against  these  figures  stands 
a  military  force  of  about  1150  officers,  55,400  men,  and 
1T30  horses,  representing  the  42  field  battalions  and  the 
42  Ersatz  companies. 

Both  infantry  and  Jiiger  are  armed  with  repeating  rifles 
of  the  Mannlicher  system,  a  six-grooved  8-millimetre  cali- 
bre breech-loader,  with  packet -loading,  which  may  be 
counted  among  the  most  precise  weapons.  Its  range  has 
been  increased  to  2500  metres.  The  pouch  ammunition 
consists  of  100  cartridges.  In  the  x\ustro-Hungarian  mon- 
archy there  is  only  one  manufactory  of  arms,  which  is  in 
Steyr,  and  belongs  to  a  stock  company.  It  is  remarkably 
well  equipped  for  work,  and  by  running  full  time,  exclud- 
ing night -work,  can  supply  upwards  of  9000  rifles  per 
w^eek. 


UIILAN    (one-year    VOLUNTEERS) 


THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  ARMY  283 

The  number  of  regiments  corresponds  to  the  divisions 
of  the  monarch}' — namely,  105  military  supply  districts 
and  3  naval.  To  each  of  the  102  regiments  of  infantry  of 
the  former,  one  district  has  been  assigned  regularly  as 
Ersatz  (supply),  and  to  the  regiment  of  Tyrolese  Jiiger 
three  districts.  For  the  Ersatz  of  the  other  arms  and 
militarv  establishments,  special  regulations  have  been 
made.  There  is  in  every  district  a  command  of  the  supply 
district  for  the  transaction  of  the  Ersatz  affairs,  the  com- 
mander of  which  is  simultaneously  commander  of  the 
Ersatz  battalion. 

The  Austro-Hungarian  army  has  42  regiments  of  cav- 
alry, and  of  these  the  15  dragoon  regiments  are  recruited 
only  from  Germans  and  partly  from  Czechs,  the  16  hussar 
reo-iments  from  Ilungarv,  and  the  11  uhlan  regiments  re- 
ceive  Polish  and  Croto-Sclavonian  recruits.  Each  of  these 
reo-iments  consists  of  the  staff,  two  divisions  of  three 
squadrons  each,  and  of  the  Ersatz  cadre,  which  is  locally 
joined  to  the  regiment  in  time  of  peace.  In  mobilization 
an  Ersatz  squadron  is  formed  from  the  Ersatz  cadre  for 
the  express  purpose  of  supervising  the  training  of  the 
Ersatz  troops  and  procm-ing  substitutes  of  horses  ;  further, 
one  reserve  squadron,  which  is  to  be  used  with  the  bodies 
of  the  army  and  for  purposes  of  occupation,  two  bands  of 
staff  cavalry  for  service  at  the  quarters  of  the  chief  and 
the  staff,  and  finally  one  telegraph  patrol. 

A  band  of  pioneers  is  assigned  to  each  regiment  of 
cavalry  in  order  to  enable  the  troops  to  make  those  re- 
mote excursions  which  are  often  necessary  on  account  of 
the  destruction  of  works ;  for  example,  of  railways,  etc. 

The  peace  register  of  a  field  squadron  is  5  officers,  166 
men,  and  156  horses ;  in  war  it  numbers  5  horses  more, 
but  is  otherwise  the  same. 

The  pioneer  band  has  1  officer,  27  men,  and  28  horses. 


284  THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN   ARMY 

The  regiment  of  cavalry — staff,  6  squadrons,  Ersatz 
staff  —  registers  in  peace  43  officers,  1037  men,  and  965 
horses ;  in  war,  with  staff,  6  field  squadrons,  1  Ersatz 
squadron,  1  reserve  squadron,  2  bands  staff  cavalry,  in- 
cluding the  train,  which  numbers  62  officers,  1649  men, 
1639  horses ;  of  these,  1386  are  mounted  in  fighting  con- 
dition. 

The  force  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  horsemen  in  time  of 
peace,  therefore,  amounts  to  252  squadrons,  1806  officers, 
and  43,554  men ;  in  Avar,  252  field  and  42  reserve  squad- 
rons, for  the  Ersatz  squadron  and  staff  cavalry  bands  have 
about  2600  officers,  69,200  men,  and  68,600  horses. 

The  lance  (pike)  having  been  taken  from  the  uhlan  regi- 
ments in  1884,  the  entire  mounted  force  is  furnished  alike 
with  horses  and  weapons,  thus  producing  that  unity  of 
tlie  cavalry  for  which  so  many  had  earnesth^  worked. 
The  weapons  consist  of  a  sabre  and  Werndl  carbine,  which 
allows  a  shot  to  be  aimed  at  a  distance  of  1600  metres. 
The  under-officers  carry  a  revolver. 

The  military  ammunition  pouch  carries  fifty  rounds  of 
cartridges  for  the  breech -loading  carbine,  thirty  for  the 
revolver. 

Up  to  the  present  time  horses  have  been  procured  for 
the  army  by  general  purchasing  of  full-aged  ones  through 
the  three  commissions  of  remount-assent  and  their  four 
expositors^  or  by  retail  trading  of  the  individual  members 
of  the  troops. 

The  breeding  of  horses  is  highly  developed  in  many 
parts  of  the  monarchy,  and  the  horse  market  very  good. 
In  each  of  three  colt  farms  there  are  kept  400  colts  from 
three  and  one- half  to  four  and  one -half  years  of  age. 
These  are  assigned  to  the  regiments  after  they  have  be- 
come full-grown.  On  the  other  hand,  measures  have  been 
taken  to  stop  the  trading  and  to  purchase  the  horses  as 


\ 


,v^^. 


JAGER    OFFICERS 


directly  as  possible  from  the  breeder.  More  than  one- 
third  are  procured  by  direct  purchase,  and  less  than  two- 
thirds  by  contract  and  free  competition.  It  is  calculated 
that  regularly  the  annual  demand  requires  twelve  per 
cent,  riding  and  ten  per  cent,  draught  horses,  making 
about  six  thousand  animals.  In  case  of  mobilization, 
owners  of  horses  are  bound  by  law  to  make  up  the  neces- 
sary increase  for  the  army  for  an  indemnity. 

The  artillery  is  divided  into  the  field  and  the  fortress 


286  THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  ARMY 

artillery ;  and  further,  the  field  artillery  consists  of  four- 
teen regiments  of  corps  artillery,  twenty -eight  heavy 
battery  divisions,  and  one  mountain  battery  in  Tyrol. 
The  regiments  of  corps  artillery  have  the  numbers  of  the 
army  corps  to  which  they  belong,  besides  the  name  of  the 
commander.  The  heavy  batteries  are  numbered  from  1 
to  28. 

In  each  corps  the  regiment  of  corps  artiller}^  and  the 
batteries  apportioned  to  the  two  comj^anies  of  infantry 
form  one  brigade  of  artillery,  whose  number  agrees  with 
that  of  the  corps. 

Each  of  the  twenty-eight  batteries  is  made  up  of  the 
staff  of  the  division,  three  heavy  batteries,  numbered  1  to 
3,  the  munition  park,  and  the  Ersatz -depot  cadre,  from 
which,  in  time  of  mobilization,  the  munition-park  division 
is  made,  consisting  of  one  munition  column  of  infantry, 
one  of  artillery,  and  the  Ersatz  depot. 

The  mountaineer  battery  division  in  Tyrol  is  made  up 
of  the  staff  of  the  division,  three  mountaineer  batteries, 
with  various  mountaineer  armament,  numbered  1,  3,  and 
5  (doubled  in  time  of  mobilization,  adding  Nos.  2,  4,  and 
6),  and  the  Ersatz-depot  cadre. 

When  the  army  is  in  the  field,  the  regiment  of  corps 
artillery,  together  with  the  1st  and  2d  battery  divisions 
and  the  corps  of  munition  park,  are  divided  like  the  artil- 
lery corps,  the  heavy  batteries  numbered  1  to  28,  then  the 
heavy  batteries  numbered  29  to  42,  which  are  to  be  distin- 
guished from  the  regiments  of  corps  artillery,  together 
with  the  divisions  of  munition  park  belonging  to  them. 

In  war  and  peace  the  mounted  batteries  have  G  guns, 
with  horses.  The  other  batteries  have  4  in  peace,  8  in 
war,  excepting  batteries  29  to  42,  which,  at  the  least  peace 
register,  present  only  2  guns  with  horses. 

The  normal  register  of  a  battery  in  peace  is  3  officers,  1 


a 

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52 
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YX^  OF  TilK 


THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  ARMY  289 

cutlet  officer's  representative,  99  men,  and  42  horses ;  that 
of  a  mounted  battery,  4  officers,  1  cadet  officer's  repre- 
sentative, 120  men,  and  109  horses.  In  war  the  register  is 
increased  to  4  officers,  1  cadet  officer's  representative,  195 
men,  148  horses;  at  times, 4  officers,  1  cadet  officer's  repre- 
sentative, 178  men,  and  215  horses. 

The  mountaineer  batteries  have  a  peculiar  arrangement, 
which  they  have  employed  with  success  in  the  occupation 
of  Bosnia  and  Herzegovina.  Ordnance  which  can  be 
taken  apart  are  transported  on  the  backs  of  animals. 

In  peace  a  mountaineer  battery  of  a  regiment  of  corps 
artillery  has  2  officers,  1  cadet  officer's  representative,  65 
men,  24  mountain  horses  and  beasts  of  burden ;  that  of 
the  mountaineer  battery  division  in  Tyrol,  4  officers,  90 
men,  and  13  horses  ;  but  in  war  there  are  2  officers,  1  cadet 
officer's  representative,  108  men,  67  mountain  horses  and 
beasts  of  burden ;  at  times,  2  officers,  101  men,  52  mount- 
ain horses  and  beasts  of  burden. 

The  force  of  the  field  artillery  in  peace,  consisting  of  14 
regiments  of  corps  artiller}^,  28  divisions  of  heavy  battery, 
and  the  mountain  Tyrolese  battery  division,  with  the  Er- 
satz cadre  belonging  to  it,  contains,  in  168  regular  bat- 
teries, 42  at  the  greatest  reduction,  16  mounted  and  15 
mountaineer,  28  munition  parks,  15  Ersatz -depot  cadres, 
28  munition  parks  and  Ersatz -depot  cadres,  with  756 
ordnance  of  nine  centimetres  bore,  96  of  eight,  and  60 
of  seven,  about  1200  officers,  23,400  men,  and  7900  horses 
and  beasts  of  burden.  The  force  in  war,  including  reserve 
ordnance,  with  1750  guns  of  nine  centimetres,  96  of  eight, 
and  72  of  seven,  numbers  about  1900  officers,  76,400  men, 
64,600  horses  and  beasts  of  burden. 

The  fortress  artillery,  intended  for  the  offensive  and 
defensive  service  of  strongholds,  consists  of  six  regiments 
of   fortress   artillery  and   three  battalions  of  the  same. 

19 


290  THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  ARMY 

The  regiments  are  numbered  from  1  to  G,  having  the 
names  of  their  commanders.  The  battalions  are  num- 
bered from  1  to  3. 

In  peace  the  companies  of  fortress  artillery  are  scat- 
tered chieflv  in  the  fortresses. 

In  peace  the  field  company  of  the  fortress  artillery 
has  4  officers,  1  cadet  officer's  representative,  99  men; 
in  war,  6  officers,  1  cadet  officer's  representative,  and  239 
men. 

The  peace  register  of  the  fortress  artillery  numbers,  in 
73  field  and  18  Ersatz  cadres,  408  officers,  7722  men,  and 
24  horses ;  the  war  register,  in  90  companies,  about  G-IO 
officers,  21,700  men,  and  100  horses. 

The  arms  of  the  artillery  troops,  determined  by  their 
special  employment,  consist  of  pioneer,  infantry,  or  cav- 
alry sabres.  Of  these  same,  the  mounted  artillery  carry 
a  lighter  variety,  also  revolvers  for  the  officers  and  the 
serving  troops  of  the  mounted  artillery,  finally  Werndl 
infantry  rifles,  with  30  rounds  of  cartridges  as  military 
wallet  ammunition  for  the  fortress  artillery. 

The  material  for  the  guns  is  composed  of  steel-bronze, 
also  called  Uchatius's  bronze,  after  the  inventor.  General 
Baron  von  Uchatius.  This  is  more  elastic  and  more- capa- 
ble of  withstanding  the  destructive  influence  of  gases 
than  cast -steel.  Everything  necessary  for  army  and 
navy  is  prepared  at  home.  In  this  way  Austria  not  only 
has  made  itself  independent  of  foreign  countries,  but  also 
gives  considerable  support  to  its  native  industries. 

The  engineer  corps  is  composed  of  the  staff  and  troop 
of  engineers.  The  former  consists  of  officers  only,  the 
total  number  being  159,  who  as  engineering  directors 
manage  the  affairs  relating  to  fortifications  and  militia  in 
definitely  limited  districts. 

The  engineer  troop  consists  of  2  regiments,  each   of 


THE   AUSTRO-IIUNGARIAN  ARMY 


291 


which  consists  of  5  Meld  battiilions,  2  reserve  companies, 
and  I  Ersatz  battalion  of  5  Ersatz  companies.  In  peace, 
the  hitter  of  these  consists  only  of  the  staff.  The  field 
battalion  is  divided  into  -i  companies.  Furthermore,  in 
juncture  with  the  regiments  are  15  columns  of  pioneers. 


\ 


%. 


%^ 


%: 


\ 


BUStiAKS 


292  THE  AUSTRO-HUNGA.KIAN  ARMY 

provided  with  the  necessary  implements  for  the  construc- 
tion of  greater  or  less  works,  and  with  the  chief  engineer 
park. 

In  peace,  both  engineer  regiments  number  276  officers, 
5054  men,  and  58  horses;  in  war,  about  330  officers,  12,- 
700  men,  and  1370  horses  (together  with  by-wagons,  1718 
horses,  and  558  wagons). 

The  pioneer  regiment  is  divided  into  5  field  battalions, 
each  composed  of  4  field  companies,  into  1  reserve  com- 
pany, 1  Ersatz  company,  and  1  reserve  of  ordnance.  In 
war  it  is  broken  up,  and  employed  in  independent  battal- 
ions and  companies. 

To  this  pioneer  regiment  is  leagued  also  the  depot  pi- 
oneer ordnance. 

The  pioneer  company  is  organized  chiefly  for  the  build- 
ing of  pontoon-bridges,  but  its  business  is  also  to  restore 
and  destroy  roads,  to  assist  in  the  construction  of  tempo- 
rary fortifications,  and  to  construct  the  necessary  water- 
works. The  Austrian  bridges  were  built  from  the  plans 
of  General  Baron  von  Birago,  who  died  in  18-15. 

When  mobilized,  the  entire  regiment,  together  with  the 
pioneer  ordnance  depot,  the  ordnance  reserve,  No.  6,  and 
2  movable  pioneer  ordnance  depots,  extends  from  134 
officers,  2634  men,  and  29  horses  to  a  force  of  about  180 
officers,  8100  men,  and  920  horses,  the  regiment  alone 
having  170  officers,  7760  men,  and  920  horses.  The  train 
of  the  regiment  numbers  412  drivers  and  760  horses. 

The  duty  of  the  railway  and  telegraph  regiment  is  to 
destroy  or  restore  railwaj^s  and  telegraph  lines,  or,  in 
some  cases,  to  construct  new  ones  for  military  purposes. 
In  times  of  peace,  divisions  of  this  regiment  are  ordered 
to  serve  in  the  civil  railway  companies,  in  order  to  be 
better  trained  for  this  work.  The  peace  register  of  the 
regiment,  numbering  45  officers,  844  men,  and  14  horses, 


|(||(lllllJ||||]jij||liiJii"r"!il!fv-""i:TO^ 


THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  ARMY  295 

is  increased  on  the  field  to  about  110  officers,  -tSOO  men, 
and  350  horses. 

The  train  troop  consists  of  three  regiments.  In  peace, 
each  of  these  regiments  is  composed  of  a  regiment's  staff, 
five  train  divisions,  and  one  Ersatz-depot  cadre.  In  peace, 
each  train  division  consists  of  the  division's  staff,  a  num- 
ber of  train  squadrons,  and  one  Ersatz-depot  cadre  (with 
the  number  of  the  train  division). 

The  register  of  the  three  train  regiments  in  peace 
amounts  to  only  327  officers,  2535  men,  and  152T  horses ; 
but  the  war  register,  on  the  other  hand,  has  about  llOO 
officers,  45,300  men,  50,200  horses,  and  5000  beasts  of 
burden.  The  armament  consists  of  cavalry  sabre  for 
officers,  cadet  officers'  representatives,  sergeants,  uuder- 
officers  of  accounts  of  first  class,  and  farriers  of  all  the 
train  bands,  heads  of  bands,  under-officers  of  accounts  of 
second  class,  corporals,  and  trumpeters  of  all  the  train 
bands,  excepting  the  mountaineer  train  squadrons  and  di- 
visions of  train  park,  as  well  as  for  the  mounted  train 
soldiers  of  the  squadrons  and  commands  accompan3ing 
the  train. 

In  peace,  the  sanitary  band  consists  of  the  command  of 
the  band  and  26  sections.  In  times  of  mobilization,  in 
addition  to  this,  it  consists  of  field  and  reserve  sanitary 
sections,  formed  in  requisite  numbers  from  the  former 
sections,  next  sanitary  sections  for  the  German  Ordens- 
hospitals  for  the  wounded.  Single  sanitary  sections  are 
assigned  to  the  hospitals  of  the  garrison,  and  have  the 
same  numbers  as  the  latter. 

The  sanitary  band  is  commanded  by  a  special  corps  of 
officers,  which  is  independently  supplied.  Its  members, 
however,  are  not  to  be  confused  with  the  military  medical 
corps  of  officers,  the  physicians  proper. 

In  peace  the  sanitary  band  has  a  register  of  83  officers. 


296  THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN   ARMY 

283-i  men,  and  in  war  numbers  about  400  officers  and  21,- 
200  men. 

The  landwehren  stand  next  to  the  hne.  In  peace  they 
are  kept  Avholly  apart  from  the  standing  army,  and, 
moreover,  are  separated  from  each  other  by  the  two  divis- 
ions of  the  empire.  They  receive  their  orders  from  the 
Ministry  of  National  Defence,  and  are  supphed  from 
those  who  have  served  ten  years  (three  in  the  Hne  and 
seven  in  the  reserve),  and  have  still,  according  to  law, 
two  years'  service  in  the  landwehr,  as  well  as  from  par- 
ticular recruits,  enrolled  from  eight  weeks  up  to  three 
months,  and  also  mustered  later  for  military  drill.  The 
landwehr  of  those  countries  represented  in  the  Reichsrath 
is  again  divided  into  the  so-called  imperial-royal  landwehr 
and  the  national  guards  of  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg.  The 
imperial-royal  landwehr  is  under  the  control  of  tlie  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  Ministry  of  National  Defence. 
The  corps  commands  belonging  to  it  form  in  their  own 
district,  as  imperial -royal  landwehr  commands,  intermedi- 
ate bodies. 

The  imperial -royal  landwehr  infantry  consists  of  82 
battalions  of  landwehr  and  10  of  national  guards. 

In  war,  eacli  battalion  lias  1  staff,  4  field  companies,  1 
Ersatz  company,  also  1  reserve  company,  and,  finally,  1 
staff  company.  In  war,  as  in  peace,  the  battalions  are  to 
be  combined  into  regiments.  In  case  of  need  these  regi- 
ments are  divided  into  landwehr  brigades  and  companies, 
whose  classification  with  artillerv  comes  throuirh  the  ar- 
tillery  of  the  standing  arm3\  The  register  of  a  landwehr 
(national  guard)  battalion's  staff  amounts  to  9  officers  and 
*J5  men.  The  war  register  of  a  landwehr  field  and  re- 
serve company  has  4  officers  and  282  men  ;  of  an  Ersatz 
company,  in  normal  condition,  5  officers  and  228  men  ;  of 


TRAIN 


a  field  and  reserve  compan}'^  of  national  guards,  4  officers, 
236  men ;  of  an  Ersatz  company,  in  normal  condition,  5 
officers  and  232  men.  In  mobilization  the  register  of  a 
landwehr  battalion  has  29  officers,  1417  men — when  the 
Ersatz  compan}^  reaches  its  maximum  rate,  29  officers, 
1557  men ;  of  a  battalion  of  national  guards,  32  officers 
and  14S8  men  —  Avhen  the  Ersatz  company  reaches  its 
maximum,  32  officers  and  1628  men.  Therefore  the  total 
sum  of  the  landwehr  infantry,  according  to  the  regular 
war  register,  is  about  2890  officers  and  131,000  men. 

The  armament,  ammunition,  regimentals,  etc.,  are  like 
those  of  the  infantry  of  the  standing  army. 

The  mounted  landwehr  troops  are  composed  of  the 
landwehr  cavalrv,  the  mounted  national  guard  in  Tvrol 
and  Yorarlberg,  and  the  mounted  guards  in  Dalmatia. 

The  landwehr  cavalry  consists  of  3  regiments  of  dra- 
goons and  3  of  uhlans. 


298  THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN    ARMY 

The  mounted  national  guard  in  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg 
and  those  in  Dalmatia  are  intended  chiefly  for  tlie  ord- 
nance, post,  and  signalling  service.  The  former  are  en- 
listed from  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg,  the  latter  from  Dal- 
matia. 

The  mounted  national  guard  of  Tyrol  and  Yorarlberg 
is  divided  into  a  division's  staff,  2  field  squadrons,  and  1 
Ersatz  section.  The  mounted  guards  in  Dalmatia  are 
divided  into  one  field  squadron  and  one  Ersatz  section. 

The  total  number  of  the  landwehr  cavalry  amounts  to 
about  200  officers,  5260  men,  and  5200  horses. 

The  Hungarian  landwehr  has  a  distinct  position  in  the 
army,  carries  emblems  and  flags  with  the  national  colors  of 
Hungary,  and  is  subject  during  war  to  the  command 
placed  over  it,  but  in  peace  to  the  royal  Hungarian  mili- 
tary authority.  As  such,  the  commander-in-chief  of  the 
landwehr  acts  in  union  with  the  Ministry  of  Home  De- 
fence. All  the  youth  liable  to  service  in  the  defence 
(Wehr)  who  have  not  been  placed  in  the  army  are  as- 
sitrned  to  the  landwehr,  and  are  trained  by  a  course  in 
military  drill.  The  94  battalions  forming  in  peace  four 
field  companies  and  one  Ersatz  company  are  combined 
into  28  regiments,  whose  staffs  are  continued  even  in 
peace. 

Much  is  being  done  for  the  trainmg  of  professional  offi- 
cers and  for  their  higher  education— namely,  through  the 
Honved  (militia)  Ludovika  Academy  at  Buda-Pesth,  witli 
its  three  grades,  the  four-form  school  for  cadets,  the  one- 
year  course  in  the  training  of  Honved  officers  for  persons 
having  the  rank  of  furlough,  and  the  higher  officers' 
course. 

There  are  seven  district  commands  existing  as  inter- 
mediate authorities  for  the  military  and  administrative 
official  duties. 


BOSNIANS 


*iv  f^ 


THE   AUSTRO-IIUNGAHIAN   ARMY  301 

The  royal  Hungarian  landwehr  cavalry  consists  of  lu 
regiments  of  hussars.  In  peace,  each  of  these  regiments 
is  composed  of  6  squadrons ;  in  war,  it  has,  besides,  a 
supplementary  squadron  appointed  from  the  regiments' 
ranks,  and  a  staff. 

The  peace  register  of  a  royal  Hungarian  landwehr  regi- 
ment of  cavalry  is  25  officers,  810  men,  212  horses ;  at 
times,  218  horses.  The  war  register,  37  officers,  874  men, 
and  795  horses.  The  officers'  corps  is  educated  in  the 
Central  Cavalrv  School. 

The  landsturm  is  the  military  organization  of  the  tliird 
class  in  both  parts  of  the  empire,  and  is  placed  under  na- 
tional protection. 

The  first  call  upon  the  landsturm,  consisting  as  it  does 
of  those  capable  men  from  19  to  37  years  of  age  who  do 
not  belong  to  the  army  or  to  the  landwehr,  or  have 
served  out  their  time,  is  to  be  made  in  case  of  need,  when 
it  is  to  be  used  as  an  Ersatz  reserve  for  army  and  land- 
wehr— that  is,  for  the  completion  of  the  breaks  in  the 
array  on  the  field. 

The  second  call — the  landsturm  in  its  narrower  sense — 
includes  men  capable  of  bearing  arms  from  38  to  42  years 
of  age,  the  officers  retired  from  service  to  60  years  of  age. 
For  many  years  in  Tyrol  and  Vorarlberg,  men  from  18  to 
45  years  of  age,  who  are  capable  of  bearing  arms  but  are 
not  serving,  have  been  liable  to  the  Sturm  service.  These 
form,  in  peace,  local  bands  of  landsturm,  50  to  100  men 
strong,  which,  again,  are  united  into  companies  of  2  to  6 
bands,  and  into  battalions  of  3  to  6  companies,  under 
elected  officers.  The  regulations  and  armament  are  di- 
rected by  the  State. 

A  beginning  was  made,  November,  1881,  in  Bosnia  and 
Herzegovina  to  train  the  strong  and  skilful  men  of  those 


302  THE   AUSTRO-IIUNGARIAN  ARMY 

parts  for  military  service,  and  since  the  1st  of  October, 
1885,  eight  Bosnio-Herzegovinian  battalions  of  infantry 
have  been  sent  to  the  four  supply  stations  of  the  military 
frontier.  The  officers  and  under -officers  are  appointed 
from  the  Austrian  companies ;  the  arms  and  equipment 
are  the  same  as  those  of  the  remaining  infantry.  The 
uniform  has  the  same  cut,  but  is  light  blue  in  color,  and 
the  red  fez,  with  a  blue  woollen  tassel,  is  worn  on  the 
head. 

To  complete  the  picture  mention  may  here  be  made  of 
the  various  body-guards,  which  are  provided  with  very 
magnificent  and  peculiar  uniforms.  These  are  chiefly  in- 
tended for  the  escort  of  the  Kaiser  on  festive  occasions 
and  for  the  guard  of  the  palaces  and  castles.  They  are 
appointed  partly  from  the  troops,  partly  from  deserving 
officers  and  non  -  commissioned  officers  that  have  been 
wounded  and  are  half  disabled.  They  are  entitled  as  fol- 
lows :  first  archers  body  -  guard,  Hungarian  body  -  guard, 
halberdier  body-guard,  mounted  squadron  of  body-guard, 
and  infantry  company  of  body-guard. 

A  recapitulation  of  the  figures  introduced  above,  in- 
cluding a  count  of  the  staffs  and  the  many  military  estab- 
lishments which  could  not  be  enumerated  in  this  necessa- 
rily concise  review,  shows  an  approximate  peace  strength 
in  the  I.  class  of  265,000  men  in  army,  6900  in  navy,  2900 
in  Bosnio-Herzegovinian  troops,  making  a  grand  total  of 
275,000  men  •,  in  the  II.  class  of  10,000  men  in  the  im- 
perial and  royal  landwehr,  17,000  in  royal  Hungarian 
landwehr.  Therefore  the  grand  total  peace  strength  is 
302,000  men. 

In  war,  these  figures  are  increased  as  follows :  In  the 
I.  class,  808,000  men ;  in  the  II.  class,  440,000  men.  In- 
cluding the  members  of  the  III.  class  (landsturm)  that 
have  had  military  training,  the  monarchy  has  disposition 


THE   AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN   ARMY 


303 


of  about  3,390,000  men — six  per  cent,  of  the  entire  popu- 
lation. 

The  unity  of  the  army  is  secured  by  the  German-speak- 
ing and  German-educated  corps  of  officers.  Full  recogni- 
tion is  giv^en  to  the  thor- 
oughly scientific  training  of 
the  same.  Numerous  schools 
for  cadets,  also  special  ones 
for  special  weapons,  are  pre- 
paring young  men  for  their 
future  profession,  and  a 
great  number  of  training  es- 
tablishments, among  which 
are  the  military  academy  in 
ATiener-Neustadt,  the  tech- 
nical military  academy  in 
Vienna,  and  the  Ludovika 
academy  in  Pesth,  are  in- 
tended for  this  purpose,  as 
well  as  for  higher  instruc- 
tion. Moreover,  great  care 
is  bestowed  on  the  continu- 
ous education  of  the  corps 
of  officers. 

The  disposable  material 
for  the  training  of  the  corps 
of  non-commissioned  officers 
varies  in  the  separate  prov- 
inces of  Austria  and  Hun- 
gary, but  it  is  for  the  most 
part  good.  The  greater  num- 
ber of  the  noncommissioned 
officers  acquire  their  instruc- 
tion in  their  troops,  where       emierok's  bodyguard— austkian 


\  \ 


304  THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN   ARMY 

those  elements  capable  of  training  are  united  in  sections, 
and  are  trained  for  a  half-year,  chiefly  in  practical  service. 

Austria  and  Hungary  possess  a  well-trained,  but,  on  the 
whole,  somewhat  too  young,  corps  of  non  -  commissioned 
officers. 

The  improvement  of  the  troops  is  sought  with  devoted 
earnestness,  and  the  army  itself  seeks  to  profit  by  the  ex- 
perience of  past  campaigns. 

In  general,  the  training  of  the  Austro-Hungarian  army 
is  of  a  high  grade.  It  is  influenced  by  the  heterogeneous 
character  of  its  soldiers,  further  by  unfavorable  climatic 
conditions,  and  by  the  distant  connections  of  many  troops. 
However,  in  consequence  of  the  uniform  orders  and  the 
intense  activity  of  the  corps  of  professional  officers,  as  a 
whole,  a  homogeneousness  of  the  different  sorts  of  sol- 
diery is  not  to  be  mistaken.  In  the  first  class  the  infan- 
try is  good  ;  it  shoots  and  marches  very  well.  The  cav- 
alry rides  very  well,  and  is  well  trained  in  field  service. 
The  training  of  the  artillery  and  technical  troops  is  of  a 
hicrh  grade. 

In  the  second  class,  both  the  royal  Hungarian  and  the 
imperial  and  royal  infantry  are  well  trained.  The  impe- 
rial and  royal  cavalry,  as  well  as  the  royal  Hungarian,  is 
almost  equal  to  that  of  the  standing  army. 

Of  the  more  extensive  fixed  camps  of  evolution,  that  at 
Bruck-on-the-Leytha  deserves  particular  mention.  From 
May  until  September  in  monthl}?^  succession  it  is  visited 
annually  by  each  of  the  divisions  of  the  garrison  at  Vi- 
enna. At  this  place  is  established  the  shooting- school 
of  the  army,  which  forms  the  nucleus  for  practice  in 
shooting. 

The  territorial  division  of  the  empire,  which  has  existed 
for  a  considerable  length  of  time,  will  doubtlessly  have 
its  accelerating  effect  on  the  future  mobilization  of  the 


EMPERORS    BODY-GUARD — HUNGARIAN 


army.  For  the  defence  of  the  country  the  fortifications 
are  put  in  the  closest  communication  with  the  array. 
Though  few  in  number,  they  are  sufficient,  on  the  whole, 
for  modern  requirements,  both  as  regards  necessary  pro- 
tection against  the  far -ranging  guns,  and  as  fortified 
camps  which  can  furnish  the  room  necessary  for  the  shel- 
ter of  more  or  less  large  bodies  of  troops.  Opposite  the 
neighbor  on  the  east  is  the  important  fortified  camp 
of  Cracow,  with  the  ancient  castle  on  Mount  Wawel  as 
citadel,  with  outlying  forts  on  both  banks  of  the  Vistula. 
In  middle  Galicia,  Przemysl,  which  was  assailed  during 


306  THE   AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  ARMY 

the  Oriental  war,  has  been  built  as  a  fortified  camp. 
And  the  armament  in  both  fortifications  has  been  re- 
newed. 

The  old  Sperr  forts  in  most  of  the  passes  of  the  Tran- 
sylvanian  Alps  serve  as  a  first  line  of  protection  against 
the  Roumanian  frontier ;  as  a  second  line,  similar  fortifi- 
cations in  Siebenbiirgen,  among  which  Karlsburg  is  no- 
ticeable as  being  a  fortified  depot. 

Peterwardein,  on  the  former  military  frontier,  com- 
mands the  long  pontoon-bridge  over  the  Danube. 

Moreover,  on  the  frontier  of  Servia  and  Bosnia  there 
are  fortified  points,  as  Brod,  Croatian  Gradisca,  and  Lit- 
tle Karlstadt,  on  the  Save  and  Kulpa. 

On  the  Dalmatian  coast  the  fortified  military  port  of 
Cattaro  has  been  strengthened,  and  the  points  of  Cattaro 
and  Sebenico  have  been  also  fortified  against  Montenegro. 

In  Herzegovina  the  fortified  towns  of  Trebinje,  Bilek, 
Mostar,  and  Nevesinje  are  surrounded  with  forts  and 
block -houses  commandingly  located,  so  as  to  mutually 
protect  and  support  each  other.  The  capital  of  Bosnia, 
Sarajevo,  is  also  fortified. 

The  chief  military  port  of  the  monarchy  is  Pola,  which 
is  surrounded  with  strong  fortifications  both  on  its  sea 
front  and  on  its  land  side,  and  is  also  provided  with  a 
Noyan.  The  possession  of  Pola  is  of  the  greatest  import- 
ance to  the  monarchy.  Its  favorable  location  offers  a 
safe  anchorage  to  the  biggest  ships,  and  marks  the  place 
as  a  haven  of  the  first  class. 

Because  of  the  great  dock-yards,  where  all  the  ship- 
building and  other  works  pertaining  to  the  navy  are 
done,  and  because  of  the  storage  of  all  kinds  of  naval 
supplies  in  the  enormous  arsenals,  this  port  has  been  ele- 
vated by  Austria  to  occupy  the  central  position  of  all  af- 
fairs relating  to  the  navy,  and  its  loss  would  be  almost 


THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  ARMY 


307 


equivalent  to  the  crippling  of  the  fleet.  Facing  Italy, 
Austria  also  possesses  a  series  of  fortifications  suited  to 
the  character  of  the  land.  The  most  important  passes 
leadino-  from  Venetia  to  Carinthia  and  Tvrol,  as  well  as 
the  south-south-western  frontier  of  Tyrol,  are  secured  by 
Sj)err  forts,  and  by  the  establishment  of  a  uniform  plan, 
they  are  laid  out  according  to  a  connected  system. 

Trient  forms  the  central  point  for  the  defence  of  south- 
ern Tyrol. 

Of  the  frontier  fortresses  opposite  to  the  German  Em- 
pire may  be  mentioned  Olmutz,  Theresienstadt,  Konig- 
griitz,  Josephstadt,  in  Moravia  and  Bohemia ;  yet  these 
fortifications  no  longer  answer  to  modern  demands,  and 
for  this  reason  are  abandoned.  Besides  the  unimportant 
fortified  depots  of  Arad  on  the  Maros,  Temesvar,  the 
capital  of  Banat,  and  Esseg  on  the  Drave,  the  monarchy 
also  possesses  in  Komorn  a  strong  and  important  fortress. 
Komorn,  built  14:12  by  Matthias  Corvinus,  on  the  great 


FORTRESS    ARTILLERY 


308  THE  AUSTRO-HUNGAKIAN  ARMY 

island  at  the  confluence  of  the  Waag  and  the  Danube, 
was  strengthened  by  Kaiser  Leopold,  1672,  and  rebuilt 
1805.  The  stronghold  can  be  defended  by  a  comparative- 
ly small  force,  and  serves  doubly  as  a  Ute  de  pont  and  a 
fortified  depot. 

In  order  to  assemble  great  army  masses,  as  modern 
warfare  demands,  at  fixed  spaces,  and  with  sufficient 
speed  both  for  the  attack  and  defence,  it  is  absolutely 
necessary  that  all  the  avenues  of  communication  should 
be  Avell  developed.  At  present  Austria  and  Hungary 
possess  a  net  of  natural  waterways  in  their  many  naviga- 
ble rivers  and  canals,  the  total  length  of  which  amounts 
to  nearly  7254  kilometres.  Among  these,  the  Danube  is 
of  special  importance,  not  only  because  it  is  navigable  for 
1452  kilometres,  but  also  because,  having  this  length,  it 
flows  through  the  whole  extent  of  the  monarchy  itself. 

Among  the  means  for  transportation  in  case  of  war, 
and  especially  for  the  march  out,  the  railway  plays  the 
chief  role.  In  October,  1890,  the  average  length  of  rail- 
ways in  active  use  amounted  to  26,223  kilometres. 

The  naval  fleet  forms  the  flnal  defensive  power  of  Aus- 
tria and  Hungary.  For  a  long  time,  and  principally,  in- 
deed, for  financial  reasons,  it  has  had  scarcely  that  care 
and  attention  which  it  deserves.  And  this  was  to  be  re- 
gretted the  more  since  Austria  and  Hungary,  in  their  ex- 
tensive sea-coast  districts,  possess  excellent  material  for 
the  manning  of  their  ships.  And  the  116  different  Aus- 
tro-Hungarian  ports  of  the  Adriatic  Sea,  moreover,  form 
settled  markets  for  pretty  valuable  trade.  Under  the  aus- 
pices of  Archduke  Maximilian,  the  navy  recently  received 
fresh  impulse.  Admiral  Tegethoff  has  followed  in  the 
footsteps  of  the  imperial  Prince,  and  understands  how  to 
lead  the  fleet  to  a  brilliant  victory. 

The  central  management  of  the  navy  is  in  the  hands  of 


TORPEDO-BOAT 


the  section  of  the  Imperial  Ministry  of  War  which  it  con- 
cerns, and  the  head  of  the  same  is  also  commander-in-chief. 
The  port  admiralty  of  the  princi^Dal  military  port,  Pola, 
the  importance  and  excellence  of  which  have  been  already 
noted,  and  the  command  of  the  sea  district  in  Triest,  are 
placed  directly  under  his  charge. 

At  the  present  time  the  floating  material  of  the  navy, 
including  all  the  school-ships,  tenders,  hulks,  and  remor- 
queurs,  consists  of  125  ships  and  boats,  which  may  be 
classified  as  follows : 

I.  Chief  class :  ships  of  the  navy,  to  which  belong  the 
ships  of  the  operative  fleet  and  those  for  special  purposes. 
The  operative  fleet  contains  (1)  battle  ships  (iron-clad),  and, 
indeed,  2  turret  ships,  8  casemated  ships,  and  1  armed  frig- 
ate; (2)  the  cruisers — that  is,  T  torpedo-ships,  5  torpedo- 
boats  ;  (3)  the  torpedo-boats — namely,  23  first  class,  Nos. 
IX.-XXXiy.  second  class,  Xos.  I.-VIII.  third  class ;  (4) 
advice-boats,  wheel  steamers,  3  ;  (5)  train-ships,  1  torpedo- 
depot  ship,  1  workshop  ship,  1  material-transport  ship,  and 
1  ship  arranged  for  the  transport  of  the  sick ;  (6)  2  small 
monitors  on  the  Danube. 


2U» 


310  THE  AUSTRO-HUNGARIAN  ARMY 

Ships  for  special  purposes  include  (1)  station  and  mis- 
sion ships — namely,  2  frigates,  8  corvettes,  6  cannon-boats, 
3  screw  steamers ;  (2)  6  vessels  for  harbor  and  coast  service. 

II.  Chief  class  :  school-ships  and  their  second  ships,  1  ar- 
tillery school-ship,  1  consort,  1  torpedo  and  sea -mining 
school-ship,  sailing  brigs,  school-ship  for  sailors — namely, 
1  sailing  corvette  and  1  sailing  schooner,  and,  finally,  1 
second  ship  of  the  occasional  casern  ship  (sailing  schooner). 

The  III.  chief  class  contains  4  hulks. 

The  armament  of  the  navy  consists  of  Uchatius  and 
Krupp  guns,  the  former  of  which  were  made  at  home. 

The  contingent  of  the  navy  is  furnished  mostly  by  the 
three  supply  districts  of  the  sea-coast  countries.  The  pe- 
riod of  service  is  twelve  years — four  in  active  service,  five 
in  the  reserve,  and  three  in  the  sea  defence  {Seeioehr). 
The  crews  are  combined  into  a  sailor  corps,  which  is 
again  resolved  into  two  depots  of  six  companies  each. 
The  peace  establishment  amounts  to  6890  men,  which  is 
increased  in  war  to  13,752.  The  corps  of  sea  officers,  in- 
cluding the  midshipmen,  numbers  533  officers  and  cadets 
in  peace,  757  in  war. 

The  training  of  the  crews  —and  these  are,  on  the  aver- 
age, schooled  seamen — for  service  on  the  war  ships  takes 
place  in  the  depots,  which  the  sailors  afterwards  leave  for 
the  ships  appointed  to  service.  For  volunteer  youths 
there  is  an  apprentice  school-ship  and  a  mechanical  school. 
Only  the  artillery  and  torpedo  crews  are  trained  on  the 
various  school-ships.  The  midshipmen  are  also  prepared 
here  for  their  duties,  while  the  naval  academy  for  higher 
scientific  instruction  is  at  the  service  of  the  officers. 

The  Austro-Hungarian  navy  does  not  have  foreign  sta- 
tions, yet  regular  training  voyages  are  made  outside  of 
the  Mediterranean  Sea. 


THE  ITALIAN  ARMY 


TTALY,  lying  partly  in  tlie  Mediterranean  Sea,  and 
-■-  with,  on  one  side  France,  a  sister  but  rival  nation,  and 
on  the  other  the  Austro  -  Hungarian  Empire,  where  so 
many  interests  of  its  Slavic,  German,  and  Latin  races 
mingle,  seems  by  its  very  geographical  position  to  be 
destined  to  participate  more  or  less  directly  in  any  con- 
flict in  which  other  European  powers  may  become  in- 
volved. 

The  history  of  the  Italian  army  connects  itself  not  only 
with  that  of  the  Italian  revolution,  but  also,  and  more  es- 
pecially, with  the  history  of  the  army  of  the  former  king- 
dom of  Sardinia. 

It  was,  in  fact,  the  kingdom  of  Sardinia  that  took  the 
lead  of  the  Italian  movement  for  independence,  and  gave 
it  the  support  of  its  arms  in  1848  and  1849,  and  then  again 
in  1859,  carrying  it  to  happy  consummation  through  its 
diplomacy  and  the  campaigns  of  1859,  '60,  '61,  "^66,  'TO.  It 
was  during  those  campaigns  that  the  Sardinian  army, 
steadily  increased  by  new  accessions  from  all  parts  of 
Italy,  became  transformed  into  the  Italian  army. 

In  the  time  previous  to  the  French  invasion  of  1796-97, 
and  in  that  which  followed  from  1814  to  1859,  all  the  prin- 
cipal States  into  which  Italy  was  politically  divided  main- 
tained, it  is  true,  standing  armies,  but  these  were  only 
partially  recruited  among  the  citizens,  hired  foreigners 
forming  in  most  cases  the  principal  bodies  or  the  main 
nucleuses. 

One  State  only — namely,  the  one  governed  by  the  house 


314  THE  ITALIAN  ARMY 

of  Savoy — was  an  exception  to  this  rule.  That  State  al- 
ways kept  up  a  standing  army,  small  but  well  trained  and 
disciplined,  in  which  the  native  element  had  the  predomi- 
nance. Ever  since  the  time  of  Emmanuel  Philibert,  all 
the  Dukes  of  Savoy,  who  became  later  on  Kings  of  Sar- 
dinia, wisely  made  the  army  an  object  of  their  special  at- 
tention and  constant  care.  It  was  their  solicitude  for  the 
army  that,  during  the  seventeenth  and  eighteenth  centu- 
ries, prevented  Italy  from  becoming  entirely  a  prey  to 
Austria,  Spain,  or  Erance.  Victor  Amadeus  II.,  and  more 
especially  his  son,  Charles  Emmanuel  III.,  whose  reign  ex- 
tended over  forty-two  years,  saved  Italy  from  such  a  fate. 
His  successor,  though  for  forty-four  years — 1748-92 — un- 
disturbed by  war,  did  by  no  means  neglect  the  army.  So 
that  when,  in  the  time  of  the  French  revolution,  the  sol- 
diers of  the  republic  tried  to  pass  the  Alps,  they  met  with 
the  most  stubborn  resistance  on  the  part  of  the  small  but 
valiant  army,  and  after  five  years  only  succeeded  in  evad- 
ing it  through  the  strategy  of  the  greatest  general  of  mod- 
ern times.  Then,  at  the  first  blast  of  the  Napoleonic  tem- 
pest, the  armies  of  all  the  States  of  Italy,  including  that  of 
the  republic  of  Venice,  were  scattered.  However,  some 
of  the  Sardinian  regiments  were  allowed  to  keep  up  their 
traditions,  even  after  their  aggregation  to  the  French 
army,  in  which  they  distinguished  themselves  on  more 
than  one  battle-field.  After  1814,  Austria,  then  mistress 
of  the  provinces  of  Lorabardy  and  Venetia,  forced  the  in- 
habitants of  those  provinces  to  do  military  service  in  the 
interior  territory  of  her  empire,  mingling  them  with  the 
troops  of  her  Slavic  and  German  subjects.  The  minor 
Italian  States  had  but  poorly  organized  military  establish- 
ments. Of  the  two  more  important  States — viz.,  the  king- 
dom of  the  Two  Sicilies  and  that  of  Sardinia — the  former 
maintained  an  army  not  indeed  deficient  in  technical  skill, 


THE  ITALIAN  ARMY  315 

but  lacking  military  spirit,  and  its  masters,  the  Bourbons, 
inflicted  upon  it,  as  well  as  upon  the  people,  the  shame  of 
surrounding  themselves  with  foreign  troops  as  a  kind  of 
body-guard.  The  kingdom  of  Sardinia,  on  the  contrary, 
following  up,  after  1814,  the  military  traditions  which 
had  been  interrupted  by  French  invasion,  reconstituted 
its  army  with  elements  entirely  national,  and  organized 
and  disciplined  it  so  well  that  in  the  campaign  of  1848-49 
it  fouffht  with  honor  and  valor  worthv  of  better  success. 

It  was  natural  and  just,  then,  that  in  the  history  of  the 
Italian  revolution  the  honor  of  raising  the  flag  of  inde- 
pendence and  unity  in  1859,  and  of  constituting  the  nu- 
cleus of  the  army  of  resurrected  Italy,  should  have  been 
reserved  to  the  army  of  Savoy,  which  had  generously 
shed  its  blood,  first  to  save  Italy  from  French  invasion 
(1792-96),  and  then  again  in  1848-49  to  free  her  from  the 
yoke  of  Austria. 

By  the  organization  of  1862  the  military  establishment 
of  the  kingdom  of  Italy  was  constituted  thus :  80  regi- 
ments of  infantry  of  4  battalions  each ;  40  battalions  of 
bersaglieri ;  19  regiments  of  cavalry,  each  of  6  squadrons ; 
and  artillery  and  engineers  in  due  proportion.  This  army, 
comprising  in  time  of  war  about  250,000  men  formed  in 
20  divisions,  served  in  the  campaign  of  1866,  the  result  of 
which  was  the  accession  to  the  kingdom  of  the  Venetian 
provinces  evacuated  by  the  Austrians.  Four  years  later 
it  was  partly  mobilized  for  the  military  action  which,  di- 
rected by  General  Cadorna,  ended  in  the  capture  of  Rome 
and  the  overthrow  of  the  temporal  power  of  the  Popes. 

The  time  had  now  come  for  improvements  in  the  or- 
ganization and  the  system  of  mobilization  of  the  army. 

The  experience  of  1866  and  1870  had  made  it  apparent 
to  all  that  the  principle  theretofore  followed  of  making 
the  army  division  the  normal  organic  unit  for  the  three 


316  THE   ITALIAN  ARMY 

main  arms,  and  then  allowing  army  corps  to  be  formed  of 
almost  any  number  of  divisions,  did  not  work  satisfacto- 
rily. That  unit  Avas  not  in  correspondence  with  the  mode 
of  division  of  the  territory ;  on  the  other  hand,  some  of 
the  army  corps  were  not  army  corps  in  the  modern  sense 
of  the  word,  but  veritable  armies.  Now,  War  Minister 
Kicotti,  following  in  this  the  system  adopted  by  Germany, 
constituted  the  army  normally  on  the  basis  of  army  corps, 
each  of  two  or  three  divisions.  It  is  true  that  the  divis- 
ion of  the  territory  did  not  yet  exactly  correspond  with 
that  of  the  forces,  as  the  territory  was  divided  into  only  1 
general  commands,  and  16  territorial  commands  of  divis- 
ion, while  the  forces  could  be  established  in  10  army  corps 
and  20  divisions ;  nevertheless,  the  great  military  units  in 
time  of  peace  were  permanently  formed  nearly  in  the  same 
way  as  they  ought  to  be  in  time  of  war.  In  the  event  of 
mobilization  it  was  provided  that  to  every  2  divisions 
there  should  be  added  as  supplementary  troops  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  respective  commands  1  regiment  of  4  battal- 
ions of  bersaglieri,  and  one  or  two  regiments  of  cavalry, 
besides  some  field  batteries.  An  aggregate  of  army  corps 
was  to  constitute  an  army.  The  different  armies  might 
consist  of  two,  three,  four,  or  more  army  corps,  according 
to  the  different  tasks  assigned  to  them  severally. 

The  mobilization  of  the  army  had  not  proved  satisfac- 
tory in  either  the  campaign  of  1866  or  that  of  1870 ;  Gen- 
eral Ricotti,  therefore,  to  make  it  so,  created  the  districts. 
The  territory  was  first  divided  into  45  districts,  and  after- 
wards into  62,  and  at  the  head  of  each  of  them  was  placed 
a  superior  infantry  officer,  to  be  assisted  by  a  smaller  or 
greater  number  of  subaltern  officers,  and  disposing  of  one 
or  two  infantry  companies  to  do  the  service  of  the  district. 
To  the  district  was  assigned  the  whole  business  of  enlist- 
ing and  receiving  the  recruits,  of  mobilizing  the  men  re- 


"^^^         -Ilk: ^-^ 


iliiiiii'i 


iiiiiiiiilliiiiiliiiiliiti^il^ 


KING    HUMBEUT    AS    GENERAL    OF    THE    ARMY 


>^4^^   OF  THE 

[TJiriVERSITT] 


THE  ITALIAN  ARMY  319 

called  from  furlough,  and  of  giving  the  instruction.  By 
the  creation  of  a  new  corps,  that  of  the  Alpine  infantry, 
a  very  important  addition  was  given  to  the  infantry. 
Originally  (1872)  the  Alpine  comprised  no  more  than  15 
companies,  but  in  1873  they  were  increased  to  24.  They 
were  distributed  along  the  frontier  mountains  that  sepa- 
rate the  Italian  kingdom  from  France,  Switzerland,  and 
Austro  -  Hungary.  Their  contingents  were  and  are  re- 
cruited in  the  regions  of  the  Alps,  and  the  "instruction  so 
specialized  as  to  fit  them  as  well  as  possible  for  the  de- 
fence of  the  Alpine  passes. 

Not  less  attention  was  given  by  Ricotti  to  the  other 
arms.  He  increased  the  cavalry  by  creating  a  20th  regi- 
ment ;  reorganized  the  artillery  into  10  field  regiments  of 
10  batteries  each,  with  8  pieces  to  each  battery ;  and  the 
garrison  artillery  into  4  regiments  of  15  companies  each. 
The  pontoniers  and  the  sappers,  who  were  included  in 
the  artillery,  were  instead  attached  to  the  engineer  corps. 
The  services  of  the  artillery  and  of  the  engineers  were, 
together  with  the  service  of  forts,  placed  under  the  super- 
vision of  the  general  command  of  some  artillery  and  of  a 
few  engineer  corps.  Finally,  special  corps  were  created 
for  both  the  sanitary  and  the  supply  departments. 

Ricotti's  reorganization  marked,  undoubtedly,  a  great 
improvement  over  the  preceding  one.  It  increased  to  a 
notable  degree  the  efficiency  of  the  army  in  general  for 
all  war  purposes ;  it  better  systematized  all  the  special 
technical  field  services,  secured  a  strong  defence  of  the 
Alpine  passes  by  the  creation  and  organization  of  the 
Alpine  troops,  and  lastly  improved  all  the  arrangements 
and  services  necessary  to  the  quick  and  orderly  mobiliza- 
tion of  the  army.  Italy  could  now  count  on  300,000  com- 
batants of  the  first  line. 

We  have  said  combatants  of  the  first  line,  for  under 


320  THE  ITALIAN  ARMY 

Ricotti's  administration  there  came  into  existence  also  a 
second-line  army  by  the  institution  of  the  active  militia 
("  Milizia  Mobile  ").  In  fact,  provision  was  made,  for  the 
first  time  in  Ital}^,  to  the  effect  that  the  military  districts 
should  have  in  readiness  all  the  means  and  materials  nec- 
essary for  the  formation  of  108  battalions  of  infantry,  15 
of  bersaglieri,  and  of  2'±  companies  of  Alpine  troops.  So 
likewise  each  of  the  10  field  artillery,  and  each  of  the  4 
garrison  artillery  regiments,  as  well  as  the  engineer  regi- 
ments, was  furnished  with  all  the  elements  required  for 
the  formation  respectively  of  3  field  batteries,  3  garrison 
artillery  companies,  1  pontonier  and  8  engineer  companies. 

Of  the  local  militia  ("  Milizia  Territoriale ")  General 
Ricotti  laid  the  foundation  under  the  law  June  T,  1875, 
w^hich  he  obtained  from  the  National  Parliament.  By 
that  law  compulsory  military  service  was  extended  to  all 
able-bodied  citizens,  unless  expressly  excluded,  up  to  the 
age  of  forty  years.  Under  the  same  law  General  Ricotti 
instituted  also  a  special  militia  for  the  defence  of  the 
island  of  Sardinia,  forming  it  with  those  soldiers,  native 
of  the  island,  who,  after  three  years'  service  in  the  regular 
army,  were  sent  home  on  unlimited  furlough. 

Generals  Laraarmora  and  Fanti  were  the  founders  and 
Ricotti  the  reorg'anizer  of  the  Italian  national  arm  v.  Let 
us  now  see  how  this  army,  which  was  already  considered 
one  of  the  foremost  in  Europe,  has  been  further  improved 
since  1875. 

The  &o-C2i\\edi  progressive  party  having  in  1876  obtained 
the  ascendant  in  the  Italian  Parliament,  General  Luigi 
Mezzacapo,  a  man  of  deep  and  broad  mind,  was  called  to 
succeed  Ricotti  as  War  IMinister.  He  accepted,  in  the 
main,  the  military  organization  adopted  by  his  predeces- 
sor, and  set  about  developing  and  perfecting  it. 

He  increased  the  territorial  arm}'-  corps  commands  to 


BERSAGLIERI 


THE  ITALIAN   ARMY  323 

10,  and  the  divisional  commands  to  20,  corresponding  to 
the  10  army  corps  to  be  formed  in  the  event  of  war.  The 
districts  were  established  on  a  more  solid  basis,  and  their 
number  raised  to  88,  whereby  mobilization  was  rendered 
more  rapid. 

Through  the  modifications  introduced  by  General  Mez- 
zacapo,  the  military  establishment  of  Italy  was  put  in 
better  harmony  with  the  fundamental  principle  of  the 
systems  of  the  principal  modern  armies,  requiring  that 
the  troops  of  the  first  line,  at  least,  be  so  organized  in 
peace-time  as  to  correspond  exactly  to  the  war  foot  es- 
tablishment. Besides  this,  better  facilities  for  mobiliza- 
tion were  provided,  the  first  defence  of  the  frontiers  was 
strengthened,  and  the  organization  on  war  foot  of  the 
second  line  secured. 

But  the  political  relations  between  France  and  Ger- 
many on  one  side,  and  between  Austria  and  Russia  on  the 
other,  the  new  colonial  policy  of  the  principal  European 
powers,  especially  after  the  conditions  prescribed  by  the 
Treaty  of  Berlin,  and  the  changes  of  a  protective  charac- 
ter in  the  commercial  policy,  particularly  of  France,  placed 
Italy  in  a  position  that  appeared  full  of  danger.  Further- 
more, the  state  of  the  land  boundaries,  the  enormous  ex- 
tension of  the  sea -coasts,  the  constant  improvements  in 
the  means  of  attack,  which  rendered  the  defences  of  both 
the  Alps  and  the  coast  precarious,  the  geographical  con- 
figuration of  the  country,  and  the  limited  means  of  com- 
munication, which  rendered  the  mobilization  and  concen- 
tration of  troops  slow — all  these  things  together  made  it 
plain  that  the  ten  permanent  first-line  army  corps  were 
inadequate  to  the  defence  of  the  country.  The  necessity 
of  increasing  the  first-line  forces,  then,  became  imperative, 
all  the  more  as  it  was  not  certain  that  the  second -line 
corps  could  be  formed  promptly  enough  to  be  ready  to 


324  THE  ITALIAN   ARMY 

take  the  field  at  the  needed  time.  These  were  the  rea- 
sons for  the  new  modifications  of  the  miUtarj  system  in 
1882  by  the  Minister  of  War,  General  Ferrero. 

Under  this  system  the  field  army  was  increased,  by  2 
active  army  corps ;  the  Alpine  and  the  cavalry  arms  were 
also  both  increased,  and  furnished,  the  former  with  mount- 
ain artillery,  the  latter  with  horse  batteries.  The  first- 
line  army  on  war  foot  comprised  400,000  combatants,  per- 
fectly armed  and  equipped.  The  active  militia  was  also 
considerably  augmented. 

As  to  the  local  militia,  efficient  measures  were  taken 
which  secured  the  formation  in  case  of  war  of  320  bat- 
talions of  infantry,  30  of  Alpine  troops,  100  companies  of 
garrison  artillery,  30  of  engineers,  13  of  sanitary  and  13  of 
supply  troops. 

The  division  of  the  territory  of  1887  was  modified  in 
accordance  with  the  number  of  the  active  army  corps  of 
the  first  line  which  could  be  formed ;  consequently  there 
were  instituted  12  territorial  army  corps  and  24  territorial 
divisional  commands,  besides  a  military  command  in  the 
island  of  Sardinia. 

But  the  system  of  1882-86  had  one  great  fault — viz.,  the 
array  corps  were  quite  deficient  in  field  batteries,  and  the 
regiments  of  the  arm  had  a  very  slow  and  difficult  task  to 
perform,  being  charged  with  the  mobilization  of  10  per- 
manent batteries  of  8  pieces  each,  and  of  3  active  militia 
batteries,  these  also  of  8  pieces.  Indeed,  if  the  field  artil- 
lery, following  the  example  of  the  other  European  armies, 
had  been  increased  in  each  army  corps,  their  task  would 
have  become  altogether  too  slow  and  too  difficult. 

This  was  the  principal  reason  which  caused  the  consti- 
tution of  the  national  army  to  be  modified  anew  in  1887, 
making'  it  what  it  has  been  ever  since. 

The  royal  Italian  army,  as  at  present  organized,  consists 


«t>'- 


INFANTRY    OF    THK    LINE 


Ky^   OF  TH  l"^^ 

fXJHIVER3IT7] 


THE   ITALIAN   ARMY  307 

of  the  active  or  first-line  army,  the  active  militia  ("  Mili- 
zia  Mobile  "),  and  the  local  militia  ("  Milizia  Territoriale  "). 
The  first-line  army  is  composed  of  corps  which  are  kept 
permanently  in  active  service.  The  active  militia  is  under 
arms  in  peace  time  only  during  the  period  of  instruction, 
and  occasionally  as  the  maintenance  of  public  order  and 
peace  ma}^  require.  In  war-time  it -may  be  called  out  to 
co-operate  Avith  the  permanent  army  in  any  military  oper- 
ations. 

The  local  militia  is  likewise  kept  under  arms  in  time  of 
peace  only  temporarily,  for  the  same  purposes  and  under 
the  same  circumstances  as  the  active  militia.  In  time  of 
war  it  has  the  special  destination  of  defending  the  cities 
and  fortified  places  of  the  kingdom  ;  but  in  case  of  urgent 
need  or  foreign  invasion  it  also  may  be  called  upon  to  aid 
in  any  field  operation. 

The  organization  of  these  three  great  sections  of  the 
military  establishment  is  as  follows  : 

Permanent  army ;  I.  A  general  staff  of  163  general 
officers  in  peace-time,  taking  charge  of  the  different  per- 
manent commands.  II  A  staff  consisting  of  a  command- 
ing general,  who  is  the  chief  of  the  army  staff,  of  2  as- 
sistant generals,  of  68  colonels,  lieutenant -colonels,  and 
majors,  and  of  84  captains.  To  these  are  to  be  added  120 
infantry  captains,  6  clerks,  and  several  other  assistants. 
III.  The  royal  carabineers.  lY.  The  infantry.  V.  The 
cavalry.  YI.  The  artillery.  YII.  The  engineers ;  and 
lastly,  the  sanitary  corps,  the  commissariat,  the  account- 
ant, and  the  veterinary  corps. 

The  staffs  of  all  the  various  arms  and  corps  of  the  pei-- 
manent  army  are  in  peace  time  composed  of  officers  in 
permanent  service,  whose  number  in  each  arm  or  corps  and 
whose  rank  are  determined  by  special  law.  However,  the 
distribution  of  the  officers  among  the  different  services  of 


328  THE   ITALIAN   ARMY 

one  and  the  same  arm,  or  any  one  corps,  may  be  changed 
every  year  through  the  Budget  law. 

A  hasty  sketch  of  the  constitution  of  the  several  arms 
and  corps  on  both  the  peace  and  the  war  footing  Avill 
suffice  to  show  the  degree  of  efficiency  of  the  permanent 
army. 

The  carabineers  w^ere  instituted  in  January,  1861,  by 
bringing  together  into  one  body  all  the  military  corps 
which  had  charge  of  the  public  peace  and  order  in  the 
different  provinces  of  the  kingdom.  This  body  was  or- 
ganized on  the  same  plan  as  the  one  formerly  existing  in 
Piedmont,  from  which  it  received  the  largest  contingent, 
the  uniform,  regulations,  discipline,  and  the  corps  pride. 
It  is  formed  of  men  chosen  with  the  utmost  care,  and  is 
greatly  esteemed  for  its  noble  traditions.  In  time  of 
peace  it  looks  to  the  public  order  and  peace,  and  during 
war  it  furnishes  to  the  commands  of  the  several  armies, 
army  corps,  or  mobilized  divisions  some  sections  of  both 
its  foot  and  horse  men  for  police  and  guide  services.  A 
large  portion  of  the  carabineer  corps,  being  replaced  in 
the  local  service  by  carabineers  recalled  from  furlough,  is 
formed  into  battalions  of  picked  infantry, and  is  mobilized 
for  field  operations.  The  carabineer  corps  comprises  1 
general  command,  11  local  legions  for  police  service,  1 
school  legion  ("  allievi  carabinieri "),  furnishing  the  in- 
struction to  the  recruits  of  the  arm.  The  entire  force 
consists  of  3  general  officers,  58  superior  officers,  532  in- 
ferior officers,  40  medical  and  accountant  officers — total 
number  of  officers,  633 ;  21,000  foot  carabineers,  3888 
horse  carabineers — total  number  of  troops,  24,888.  The 
troop  horses  number  3758,  of  which  3518  are  the  cara- 
bineers' own  property.  All  the  officers  are  mounted. 
The  foot  carabineers  mobilized  in  battalions  constitute  a 
somewhat  heavy  but  select  and  very  solid  infantry. 


THE   ITALIAN   ARMY 


329 


The  infantry  is  organized 
in  96  regiments,  forming  48 
brigades.  The  entire  strength 
is :  Officers  for  48  brigade 
commands — generals,  48  ;  ad- 
jutant field  captains,  48.  Of- 
ficers for  96  regiments — su- 
perior officers,  480 ;  inferior 
officers,  5376.  Total  number 
of  officers,  5952 ,  total  num- 
ber of  troops,  124,704. 

Each  regiment  comprises 
a  staff,  3  battalions  of  3 
companies  each,  and  a  depot. 
Of  the  96  regiments,  2  are 
recruited  from  the  tallest 
men  in  the  country,  and 
form  the  brigade  of  grena- 
diers. 

The  infantry  is  excellent- 
ly armed.  The  "Wetterly  re- 
peating rifle,  improved  by 
the  Vitali  sj^^stem,  constitutes 
— more  especially  now,  after 
the  adoption  of  smokeless 
powder,  which  increases  both 
the  initial  velocity  and  the 
exactness  of  the  aim — a  most 
effective  fire-arm.  At  pres- 
ent, however,  a  new  repeat- 
ing gun  of  small  calibre  is 

being  experimented.  The  private  of  infantry  is  well 
clothed  and  equipped.  He  carries  a  total  weight  of  about 
25.7  kilograms,  including  uniform,  knapsack,  gun,  and  88 


FOOT    CARABINEER 


330  THE  ITALIAN   ARMY 

rounds  of  ammunition.  He  is  supplied  with  poles  and 
canvas  for  the  erection  of  triangular  tents  capable  of  re- 
ceiving three  or  six  men.  The  Italian  infantry  stands 
long  marches,  moves  briskly  and  with  ease  at  parade,  is 
agile  and  adroit  in  manoeuvring.  Whenever  ably  com- 
manded, it  has  shown  coolness  under  fire  and  resolution 
in  attacking.  It  very  properly  forms  a  constant  object 
of  the  special  care  of  our  war  ministers,  but,  owing  to  its 
large  numbers,  its  equipment  still  lacks  some  of  the  latest 
improvements.  The  staffs  of  the  infantry  are  mostly 
men  rather  young  in  years.  The  superior  officers  and  the 
captains  are  mounted,  and  the  other  regiment  or  com- 
pany officers  are  of  an  average  age  which  enables  them 
to  bear  the  fatigues  of  marches  and  manoeuvres.  Of  the 
48  brigades,  that  of  the  grenadiers  and  the  first  nine  of 
infantry  have  a  brilliant  military  history,  dating  from  the 
sixteenth  century.  All  the  other  brigades,  with  the  ex- 
ception of  the  last  eight,  which  have  never  been  in  any 
war,  took  part  in  the  campaigns  of  1860-61  and  of  1866. 

The  bersaglieri  consist  of  12  regiments,  each  having 
a  staff,  of  3  battalions,  counting  together  12  companies, 
and  a  depot.  As  there  are  67  officers  and  1270  men  in 
each  regiment,  the  entire  strength  of  the  12  regiments 
is  804  officers  and  15,240  men.  The  arras  and  equipment 
of  the  bersagUeri  do  not  differ  from  those  of  the  infantry. 
The  bersaglieri  are  chosen  from  among  the  strongest  and 
best-proportioned  men  in  the  country,  and  this,  together 
with  their  uniform,  their  bearing,  and  special  way  of  ma- 
noeuvring, renders  them  the  most  picturesque  and  strik- 
ing infantry  of  Europe. 

In  order  to  secure  uniformity  in  their  instruction,  the 
bersagheri  are  placed  under  the  supervision  of  a  general, 
who  is  assisted  by  a  captain  and  a  subaltern  officer,  and 
whose  supervisory  office  ceases  in  time  of  war. 


THE   ITALIAN  ARMY  331 

The  mountain  or  Alpine  infantry  consists  of  75  compa- 
nies, formed  into  22  battalions,  and  these  into  7  regiments. 
Each  regiment  lias  a  depot.  The  aggregate  strength  is 
represented  by  487  officers  and  9575  privates. 

This  corps,  recruited  solely  from  the  population  of  the 
Alps,  has  special  abilities  for  mountain  service.  It  is  armed 
like  the  infantr}",  but  its  uniform  and  equipment  are  suit- 
ed to  the  mode  of  living  and  manoeuvring  in  elevated  and 
mountainous  regions.  Each  company  in  time  of  peace  is 
provided  with  mountain  artillery  carried  by  8  pack-mules. 
The  Alpine  soldiers  have  not  yet  received  the  baptism  of 
fire,  but  their  bold  manoeuvres  in  the  highest  mountains, 
their  hazardous  and  successful  crossing  of  the  most  peril- 
ous passes,  in  spite  of  snow  and  storms,  their  daring  as- 
cents in  the  coldest  winters,  warrant  the  perfect  trust 
that  is  placed  in  them. 

The  Alpine  corps  is  also  under  the  inspectorship  of  a 
general  officer,  who  is  assisted  by  a  captain  and  a  subal- 
tern officer.  It  need  hardly  be  said  that  these  interesting 
troops,  having  in  custody  the  gates  of  Italy,  are  naturally 
the  most  exposed  to  the  attack  of  invaders,  and  the  first 
to  carry  war  outside  the  boundaries  of  their  country. 

The  administration  of  the  87  military  districts  is  as- 
signed to  the  infantrv  It  is  the  business  of  the  district 
in  time  of  peace  to  prepare  and  carry  out  the  annual  re- 
cruitment, and  forward  to  their  respective  regiments  all 
the  men  recalled  from  furlough,  who  are  to  raise  the  in- 
fantry aud  the  bersaglieri  from  peace  to  war  footing. 
The  districts  in  peace  time  have  an  adequate  number  of 
officers  and  privates  for  the  keeping  of  matriculation 
books  and  the  custody  of  the  military  storehouses  contain- 
ing the  arms,  accoutrements,  etc.,  required  for  the  mobi- 
lization of  the  infantry. 

Eleven  of  the  87  districts  have  two  permanent  compa- 


3.'^2  THE  ITALIAN  ARMY 

nies,  the  other  76  only  one,  and  all  together  98.  These 
98  companies  in  war  time  serve  for  the  formation  of  as 
many  presidiary  companies. 

The  total  force  of  the  districts  consists  of  1286  officers 
and  8611  men.  Twelve  superior  district  commands,  com- 
prising 12  generals  and  12  captains  of  infantry,  exercise 
a  strict  supervision  over  the  districts,  and  in  war  time, 
after  the  departure  of  the  mobilized  commands,  take  the 
place  of  the  territorial  army  corps  commanders.  The 
commands  of  the  districts  have,  furthermore,  the  charge 
of  forming  the  cadres  for  the  second  and  the  third  line — 
that  is,  the  active  and  the  local  militia. 

It  will  thus  be  seen  that  the  districts  impart  to  the  mil- 
itary establishment  a  considerable  strength ;  for,  after 
furnishing  the  annual  contino^ents  of  recruits  and  the 
cadres  for  the  active  and  the  local  militia,  thev  are  still 
able,  in  case  of  protracted  war,  to  organize  other  forces, 
until  all  the  resources  of  the  country  are  exhausted.  In 
short,  the  districts  constitute  the  sources  which  feed  the 
army,  and,  if  need  be,  they  can  even  create  the  field  or- 
ganizations for  the  infantry. 

The  Italian  army,  as  has  been  seen,  is  rich  in  infantry, 
but  it  cannot  be  said  to  be  rich  in  cavalry.  The  increase 
broufi-ht  to  this  arm  bv  the  reorganization  of  1887  was 
limited  to  only  2  regiments,  so  that  it  numbers  at  present 
not  more  than  24  regiments  of  6  squadrons  each,  and  a 
depot.  Of  the  24  regiments,  10  are  of  lancers  and  14  of 
light  cavalry.  The  total  aggregate  is  1080  officers,  25,- 
752  men,  and  20,880  horses.  The  officers  in  this  arm,  like 
nearly  every  mounted  officer  in  the  other  departments, 
have  horses  of  their  own.  They  are  generally  well  mount- 
ed, and  make  bold  and  elegant  riders.  Every  year  the 
love  for  equestrian  sport  increases.  Tlie  cavalry  regi- 
ments form  9  brigades  of  2  or  3  regiments  each,  and  are 


THE   ITALIAN  ARMY 


333 


subject  to  the  supervision  of  an  inspector-general  of  cav- 
alry. The  superior  commands  comprise  10  general  offi- 
cers, 1  superior  officer,  and  11  captains. 

The  artillery,  which  of 
late  years  has  so  won- 
derfully developed  in  e\^- 
ery  European  army,  was 
in  1887  considerably  aug- 
mented also  in  Italy. 
The  12  regiments  which 


\. 


% 


» 


HORSE    CARABINEERS 


334  THE  ITALIAN   ARMY 

under  Ferrero's  administration,  were  to  furnish  the  bat- 
teries, one  regiment  to  each  army  corps  in  case  of  mobi- 
lization, had,  as  we  have  said,  too  difficult  a  task,  especially 
as  they  were  obliged  to  provide  not  only  to  the  mobiliza- 
tion of  the  regular  batteries,  but  also  to  the  constitution 
of  the  batteries  of  the  second  and  of  the  third  line.  Con- 
sequently, to  increase  the  artillery  in  the  army  corps,  it 
was  necessary  to  lighten  the  burden  of  the  regiments  by 
increasing  their  number.  This  was  done  by  the  reorgan- 
ization of  1887,  so  that  at  present  the  artillery  consists  of 
24  field  regiments,  12  of  which  are  divisional,  and  are  to 
furnish  batteries  of  9-centimetre  calibre  to  the  divisions, 
to  the  number  of  4  for  each  division.  These  12  divisional 
regiments  comprise  564  officers  and  10,848  men,  with 
5136  troop-horses.  The  organization  consists  of  a  staff, 
8  batteries  forming  2  brigades,  1  train  company,  and  a 
depot.  The  other  12  regiments  have  likewise  8  batteries, 
4  of  which  are  of  9-centimetre  calibre,  4  of  7-centimetre 
calibre,  a  depot,  and  2  train  companies  instead  of  1.  To- 
tal strength,  636  officers,  11,964  men,  5496  horses.  These 
regiments  are  called  army  corps  regiments,  as  they  have 
charge  of  the  mobilization  of  the  artillery  of  the  army 
corps. 

The  organization  of  1887  also  increased  the  strength 
of  the  cavalry  divisions  by  adding  2  new  horse  batteries 
to  the  4  already  in  existence,  and  bringing  all  the  6  into 
one  regiment,  to  which  belong  also  4  train  companies 
and  a  depot.  The  total  amounts  to  64  officers,  1170 
men,  and  651  troop-horses.  The  horse  batteries,  all  of 
7 -centimetre  calibre,  are  perfectly  mounted  and  really 
splendid. 

An  addition  of  1  battery  was  made  to  the  previous  8 
mountain  batteries,  and  a  regiment  was  thus  formed  for 
mountain  service  with  9  batteries  and  a  depot.     These 


THE  ITALIAN  ARMY  335 

batteries  have  a  T-centimetre  calibre.  The  regiment  con- 
sists of  59  officers,  1198  soldiers,  and  521  mules  and 
horses. 

The  garrison  artillery  comprises  5  regiments,  each  of 
from  12  to  16  companies,  making  together  68  companies, 
and  a  depot.  The  officers  of  the  corps  are  293,  and  the 
privates  7266.  To  these  must  be  added  5  artificer  com- 
panies, aggregating  500  men  and  15  officers. 

The  high  direction  of  the  instruction  of  the  arm  is  in- 
trusted to  an  inspectorate  general,  consisting  of  6  gen- 
erals, assisted  by  12  captains.  These  oversee  the  various 
special  departments  of  the  arm  and  the  manufacture  of 
the  materials  for  the  artillery.  There  are,  besides,  4  com- 
mands for  the  field  artillery  and  2  for  the  garrison  artil- 
lery, directed  by  general  officers. 

The  engineer  corps  is  constituted  as  follows :  4  regi- 
ments with  43  companies  of  sappers,  6  of  telegraphists,  10 
of  pontoniers,  4  of  railroad  men,  1  for  balloon  and  photo- 
electric service,  and  8  train  companies.  The  4  regiments 
number  together  245  officers,  8018  privates,  and  562  troop- 
horses. 

The  sanitary  department  is  under  the  charge  of  a 
military  medical  inspector,  and  consists  of  12  territorial 
sanitary  directorates,  12  sanitary  companies,  and  of 
military  hospitals.  The  entire  department  comprises 
205  medical  officers,  91  pharmacists,  94  clerks,  and  2295 
men. 

For  the  suppl}'^  service  there  are  12  supply  companies 
with  169  officers  and  2238  privates,  and  a  commissariat 
consisting  of  12  territorial  commissariat  directorates,  3 
central  military  storehouses,  a  factory  of  military  accou- 
trements, and  a  "  revision  office"  for  the  examination  and 
verification  of  military  accounts,  with  a  total  force  of  366 
officers. 


336  THE  ITALIAN  ARMY 

The  cartographic  service  is  intrusted  to  the  Geographi- 
cal MiUtary  Institute.  This  is  divided  in  two  sections,  the 
one  having  administrative  and  supervisory  functions,  the 
other  executive.  The  former  has  21  army  officers  under 
the  high  guidance  of  the  chief  of  the  general  staff  of  the 
army,  and  the  latter  has  11  geographical  engineers  and 
110  topograph ists.  The  Geographical  Military  Institute 
has  done  very  important  Avork  m  the  geodetical  field,  has 
produced  excellent  topographical  maps,  among  them  the 
great  one  of  Italy  on  a  scale  of  ^o^o o  ^^^^^  ^^  Toohros^ 
besides  many  special  works  of  military  or  scientific  in- 
terest. 

The  present  sketch  of  the  Italian  military  organization 
would  be  incomplete  without  a  mention  of  those  institu- 
tions which  are  designed  for  the  recruitment  and  instruc- 
tion of  officers. 

For  sublieutenants  there  are  some  school  platoons  de- 
tailed by  certain  regiments  of  the  several  arms  of  infan- 
try, bersagiieri,  cavalry,  and  artillery,  besides  a  school  com- 
pany for  garrison  artillery.  A  special  academy  at  Caserta 
furnishes  instruction  to  those  sublieutenants  who  seek 
promotion  to  a  lieutenancy  in  the  field  army  or  in  its  ad- 
ministration. 

So  likewise  there  are  school  platoons  in  some  specified 
regiments  of  the  several  arms  for  the  recruitment  and  in- 
struction of  officers.  Then  five  military  academies,  at 
Milan,  Florence,  Rome,  Naples,  and  Messina,  give  college 
education  to  voung  men  whose  families  wish  them  to  be 
prepared  to  follow  the  military  profession.  The  Military 
School  of  Modena  prepares  young  men  for  sublieuten- 
ancies  in  the  infantry,  cavalry,  or  the  commissariat,  while 
the  Military  Academy  of  Turin  does  the  same  as  to  the 
arms  of  artillery  and  the  engineers. 

There  are  also  staif  colleges,  among  which  the  "  Scu- 


ALPINE    INFANTRY 


^^^^^^ 


OF  THE 


ITJSIVBE.SIT'S 


THE   ITALIAN  ARMY  339 

ohi  di  Guerm"'  of  Turin  is  prominent.  This  school  re- 
ceives officers  of  any  arm  who  pass  successfully  a  com- 
petitive examination.  The  course  lasts  two  years,  after 
which  a  vigorous  examination,  both  theoretical  and 
practical,  determines  what  men  are  fit  to  become  staff- 
officers. 

The  graduates  of  the  Military  Academ}^  of  Turin  can- 
not obtain  admission  to  any  artillery  or  engineer  regi- 
ment before  perfecting  their  education  in  the  "  Scuola 
(V  Applicazione  delle  Armi  speciali,"  also  established  in 
Turin. 

The  staffs  for  the  sanitary  department  and  the  cavalry 
are  recruited  from  the  graduates  of  the  Medical  Military 
School  of  Florence  and  the  Cavalry  School  of  Pinerolo  re- 
spectively. Two  central  schools,  the  one  at  Xettuno  for 
the  artillery,  the  other  at  Parma  for  the  infantry,  perfect 
the  special  education  of  officers  in  all  matters  pertaining 
to  arms  and  the  use  of  them. 

All  the  above-mentioned  schools  have  given  to  the  army 
numerous  officers,  whose  thorough  knowdedge,  both  theo- 
retical and  practical,  is  a  sure  guarantee  that  the  army 
and  military  science  in  Italy  will  be  kept  in  constant  prog- 
ress in  every  department. 

Until  the  year  1885,  Italy  had  no  colonies,  and  conse- 
quently no  colonial  troops.  For  the  military  expedition 
to  Massowah,  wdiich  took  place  in  the  winter  of  1881—85, 
the  w'ar  administration  organized  a  small  army,  mostly 
with  furlough  men  drawn  from  the  standing  army.  But 
in  1887  a  special  corps  for  the  permanent  occupation  of 
]\[assowah  and  its  dependencies  was  created  under  the 
special  law  of  July  18,  1887. 

This  corps,  w^hich  was  to  be  considered  as  part  of  the 
national  standing  army,  consisted  originally  of  a  colonial 
military  command,  a  staff  with  all  dependent  services,  2 


340  THE  ITALIAN  ARMY 

regiments  of  infantry,  each  of  3  battalions  of  3  companies 
eacl],  1  squadron  of  horse  chasseurs,  4  artillery  companies, 
1  supply  and  1  train  company. 

These  troops  were  recruited  from  among  the  men  in 
active  service  who  made  special  application,  and  also,  in 
given  proportions,  from  among  furlough  men  of  the  first 
category.  Their  engagement  was  for  a  term  of  4  years ; 
rescindable,  however,  after  2  years,  upon  their  demand. 
At  the  end  of  every  two-years'  term  each  soldier  was  en- 
titled to  a  premium  of  1000  francs.  The  officers  were 
drawn  from  those  of  the  standing  army,  either  in  actual 
service  or  on  furlough. 

The  strength  of  the  corps  was  238  officers,  4762  men, 
134  horses  for  the  officers,  and  322  horses  and  mules  for 
the  troops. 

In  June,  1889,  a  military  corps  of  African  natives  was 
also  instituted,  Avhich  varied  in  size  from  time  to  time,  as 
circumstances  required,  and  which,  under  the  command 
of  Italian  officers,  has  done  excellent  service. 

The  adaptability  to  the  adverse  climate  shown  thus  far 
by  tlie  Italian  troops  encourages  the  hope  that  Italy  may 
succeed  in  opening  up  to  civilization  that  part  of  the  Dark 
Continent  which  has  come  under  her  influence.  At  any 
rate,  no  such  task  would  have  been  undertaken  by  Italy 
but  for  the  existence  of  her  army  ;  and  her  army  was  also 
the  starting-point  of  that  triple  alliance  which  has  thus 
far  secured  to  Europe  the  blessings  of  peace. 

The  condition  of  the  Italian  garrisons  in  Africa  having 
become  safer,  especially  in  consequence  of  a  treaty  con 
eluded  by  Italy  with  Abyssinia  after  the  death  of  Xegus 
John,  the  colonial  army,  already  reduced  by  decree  of 
June  20, 1889,  was  further  diminished  by  decree  of  August 
28,  1890,  so  that  it  at  present  consists  of  2  battalions  of 
chasseurs  and  1  of  bersaglieri,  1  mountain  battery,  1  com- 


OFFICER    OF    CUIRASSIERS 


v^-^% 


pany  of  cannoneers,  1  of  artillery  artificers,  2  of  engineers, 
1  of  the  sanitary,  1  of  the  supply,  and  1  of  the  train 
corps.  The  entire  strength  is  105  officers,  3208  men,  72 
horses  for  officers,  and  357  for  troops.  The  mode  of  en- 
listment has  not  been  changed. 

On  June  30,  1889,  the  military  corps  of  natives  was 


342  THE   ITALLVN  ARMY 

thus  organized  :  4  battalions  of  infantry  of  4  companies 
each,  1  squadron  of  scouts,  1  mountain  battery,  2  ''  bo- 
lucks,"  1  "orta"  of  several  companies  for  service  in  the 
interior.     Total  strength,  about  400U. 

But  by  the  reorganization  decree  of  September  3,  1890, 
the  same  corps  was  formed  into  (?  battalions  of  infantry 
of  4  companies  each,  2  squadrons  of  cavalry,  and  1  lield 
battery,  making  together  104  Italian  and  48  native  offi- 
cers, 108  men  from  the  Italian  army,  5287  natives,  174 
horses  for  officers,  and  669  for  the  troops. 

This  colonial  corps  has  been  found  to  answer  perfectly 
the  ends  of  the  occupation,  and  its  troops  being  naturally 
used  to  the  torrid  climate,  it  is  not  unlikely  that,  if  neces- 
sary, it  may  be  sooner  or  later  increased,  thus  allowing  a 
further  reduction  in  the  Italian  corps. 

Having  thus  far  described  the  military  establishment  of 
Italy  in  its  constitution  and  elements,  let  us  now  locate  it ; 
or,  in  other  words,  let  us  see  how  it  is  distributed  among 
the  different  provinces  of  the  kingdom  in  time  of  peace. 

The  mode  of  distribution  is  determined  partly  by  the 
exigencies  of  the  home  policy  of  the  State  and  the  existing 
facilities  for  the  convenient  quartering  of  troops ;  but, 
above  all,  by  the  needs  of  the  defence  of  the  country 
against  foreign  enemies.  In  this  latter  respect  the  geo- 
graphical position  of  the  kingdom  in  relation  to  its  neigh- 
boring States,  and  the  peculiar  configuration  of  the  terri- 
tory, so  narrow,  and  at  the  same  time  so  excessively  long, 
are  circumstances  of  controlling  importance.  The  land 
communications  of  Italy  with  the  neighboring  States  all 
terminate  in  the  valley  of  the  Po.  The  area  of  that  valley 
hardly  exceeds  one-third  of  that  of  the  territory  of  the 
whole  State,  while  the  remaining  two -thirds  are  sur- 
rounded by  the  sea.  Hence  the  land-forces  are  assigned 
in  the  inverse  ratio — that  is,  nearly  two-thirds  to  northern 


CAVALRY "royal    PIEDMONT    REGIMENT' 


f/</^   OF  THE         -^ 

fUiriVEIlSITTl 


THE   ITALIAN   ARMY  .345 

Italy,  and  little  more  than  one -third  to  the  peninsula 
proper  and  the  islands.  So,  likewise,  of  the  12  territorial 
army  corps  commands,  not  less  than  6  are  in  the  north — 
viz.,  at  Turin,  Alessandria,  Milan,  Piacenza,  Yerona,  Bo- 
loo-na ;  5  are  scattered  all  over  the  rest  of  the  countrv — 
viz.,  at  Florence,  Ancona,  Rome,  ]!*^aples,  Bari,  and  the 
12th  is  at  Palermo. 

Nature  has  clearly  defined  the  principal  zone  of  mili- 
tary stations  in  the  event  of  war  with  any  of  the  neigh- 
boring States,  but  it  has  at  the  same  time,  by  the  length 
and  the  mountainous  structure  of  the  peninsula,  created 
man}^  hinderances  to  the  rapid  transportation  of  troops 
from  the  south  towards  the  north.  Therefore  the  oro-an- 
izers  of  the  Italian  army  acted  wisely  in  stationing  per- 
manently in  the  northern  part  of  Italy  a  military  strength 
far  superior  to  that  which  would  have  belonged  to  it  in 
proportion  to  its  territory  alone. 

The  active  militia  is  organized  as  follows :  Infantry,  -18 
regiments  of  3  battalions  of  4  companies  each ;  bersagii- 
eri,  18  battalions,  each  of  4  companies;  Alpine  troops,  22 
companies.  The  centres  of  formation  for  the  infantry 
and  the  bersaglieri  are  the  districts ;  for  the  Alpine 
troops,  the  respective  battalions. 

The  artillery  of  the  active  militia  consists  of  52  field 
batteries  of  6  pieces  each ;  9  mountain  batteries,  also  of 
G  pieces  each ;  36  garrison  artillery  companies ;  14  train 
companies.  The  centres  of  formation  for  the  various  units 
of  this  artillery  are  the  artillery  regiments  of  the  perma- 
nent army. 

The  active  militia  engineer  corps  is  formed  into  21 
companies  of  sappers,  2  companies  of  railroad  men,  3 
companies  of  telegraphists,  5  companies  of  pontoniers, 
4  companies  of  train.  The  centres  of  formation  are  those 
of  the  active  army  engineer  regiments. 


'^'^x^^^ 


LIGHT    CAVALKY 


To  the  above  corps  must  be  added  12  sanitary  service 
and  12  supply  service  companies. 

The  divisions  that  can  be  formed  with  the  above  ele- 
ments, and  that  can  be  mobilized  to  reinforce  the  12 
army  corps  of  the  first  line,  are  12.  They  are  composed 
of  all  the  various  arms  and  furnished  with  all  the  re- 
quired services,  and,  if  necessary,  all  or  some  of  them  can 
be  united  into  army  corps. 

The  island  of  Sardinia  has  a  special  active  militia  of  its 
own,  which  is  thus  constituted :  3  regiments  of  infantry, 
each  of  3  battalions  of  4  companies  each,  1  battalion  of 
bersaglieri,  1  squadron  of  cavalry,  2  batteries  of  field  ar- 
tillery, and  1  train  company,  4  batteries  of  garrison  ar- 


THE   ITALIAN   ARMY 


34^ 


tillery,  1  company  of  engineers,  1  company  of  sanitary 
service  troops,  1  company  of  supply  service  troops.  The 
centres  of  formation  for  the  Sardinian  active  militia  are 
the  two  districts  of  Cagliari  and  Sassari. 

The  organization  of  the  local  militia  was  not  changed 
in  any  notable  degree,  but  the  completion  of  its  cadres 
was  attended  with  great  care,  and  thereby  the  conditions 
of  its  formation  were  improved. 

The  cadres  for  the  local  militia  are,  as  a  rule,  constitut- 
ed of  officers  of  the  same  militia,  chosen  from  among 
the  citizens  of  all  classes  who  are  best  fitted  for  the  posi- 
tions to  which  they  are  called,  but  occasionally,  also,  of 
furlough  officers  of  the  permanent  army.  The  districts 
are  the  centres  of  formation  for  the  active  militia  battal- 
ions, or  companies  of  infantry,  artillery,  and  engineers, 
while  the  Alpine  battalions  of  the  permanent  army  are  the 
centres  for  the  22  Alpine  battalions  of  the  local  militia. 

The  various  combatant  units  of  the  three  arms  which 
the  Italian  army  is  able  to  form  in  each  of  its  three  great 
sections  may  be  summed  up  as  follows : 


s 

"5 

*^ 

05 

9i 

o 

CO 

.2 

.2 
5 

pq 
a) 

o 

Mountain  Bat- 
teries. 

Garrison  Artillery 
Compauiee. 

Engineer  Com- 
pauies. 

Supply  Compa- 
nies. 

Permanent  Army. . 

Active  Militia 

Local  Militia 

370 

177 
342 

144 
25 

194 
54 

6   '     9 
9 

69 
36 

100 

64 
31 
30 

40 
18 

889 

169 

248 
x6 

6       18 
x6     x6 

205 

125     58 

Total 1488-1-36  +  108  =  1632  pieces. 


A  glance  at  this  table  will  suffice  to  show  that  the  na- 
tional army  of  Italy  is  far  from  having  the  proportions 


348  THE   ITALIAN  ARMY 

of  cavalry  and  horse  batteries  that  the  armies  of  Ger- 
many, France,  and  Austro  -  Hungary  give  to  the  same 
arms.  This  comparative  deficiency,  however,  is  account- 
ed for  and  justified  by  the  nature  of  the  frontiers,  as  well 
as  by  the  international  position  of  the  Itahan  kingdom 
in  respect  to  the  neighboring  States,  excluding  on  its  part 
any  aggressive  intention.  The  relative  scarcity  of  cav- 
alry in  particular  would  in  any  case  be  justified  by  the 
actual  scarcity  of  horses  fit  for  military  purposes  (220,000 
in  all,  fully  one-half  of  which  number  would  be  required 
for  the  needs  of  a  general  mobilization),  as  well  as  by  the 
state  of  the  national  finances,  which  hardly  allows  the 
maintenance  of  such  an  expensive  arm  on  a  large  scale. 
]S^evertheless,  Italy  is  unquestionably  able  to  check  with 
her  army  any  offensive  movement  from  either  the  Avest 
or  the  east.  The  above  table  shows  that  no  less  than  12 
active  army  cori)s,  each  30,000  strong,  can  be  formed,  pre- 
ceded by  36,000  Alpine  infantry,  and  followed  up  by  12 
divisions,  each  120,000  strong,  of  active  militia,  giving  a 
grand  total  of  540,000  men,  all  ready  to  take  the  field, 
the  local  militia  amply  sufficing  for  all  garrison  j^ur- 
poses. 

The  law  of  conscription  makes  every  able-bodied  Ital- 
ian liable  to  military  service  from  the  age  of  20  to  30. 
There  are,  consequently,  19  classes  to  feed  the  army. 
The  men  on  the  conscription  lists  found  fit  for  service 
are  enrolled,  and  divided  by  lot  into  three  distinct  cate- 
gories— first,  second,  third.  The  first  category  contingent 
is  determined  annually  by  law.  The  men  in  excess  of 
the  first  category  contingent  are  assigned  to  the  second 
category;  those  who  find  themselves  in  such  family  cir- 
cumstances as  are  stated  by  the  law  of  conscription  are 
passed  into  the  third.  In  determining  these  circum- 
stances the  legislator  has  conciliated  the  needs  of  the  mil- 


THE  ITALIAN   ARMY 


349 


itary  defence  ol  the  State  with  the  other  interests  of  civil 
society  and  the  principles  of  humanity.  In  this  respect, 
of  the  laws  of  conscription  of  all  the  great  States  of  Eu- 
rope, the  Italian  is  the  most  liberal.  The  former,  in  fact, 
extend  the  period  of  liability  to  military  service  to  25 
years,  and  restrict  the  cases  of  exemption  within  the  nar- 
rowest limits. 

Another  feature  of  the  Italian  law  is  this :  it  allows  all 


CAVALRY    OFFICERS 


350  THE   ITALIAN  ARMY 

conscripts  wishing  to  finish  their  studies  to  postpone  mil- 
itary service  till  the  age  of  25,  and  grants  clergymen  the 
right  to  serve  in  the  sanitary  department. 

The  period  of  active  service  in  the  army  is  of  3  years 
for  the  first  category  men,  if  they  are  in  the  infantry, 
artillery,  or  engineer  corps,  and  of  4  if  they  are  in  the 
cavalry.     Sublieutenants  must  serve  5  years. 

After  3  years  spent  with  the  colors,  the  great  mass  of 
the  first  categorv  are  sent  home  on  unlimited  furloug-h, 
remaining,  however,  liable  to  service  for  6  years,  at  the 
expiration  of  which  they  pass  for  a  term  of  4  years  to  the 
active  militia,  and  then  for  6  years  to  the  local  militia. 

The  second  category  are,  in  peace  time,  liable  to  service 
in  one  of  the  several  arms  during  a  period  of  9  years  in 
the  permanent  army,  another  of  4  years  in  the  active 
militia,  and  a  third  one  of  6  years  in  the  local  militia ;  V)ut 
they  are  considered  as  on  furlough,  and  only  subjected  to 
some  months'  military  training. 

The  furlough  classes  of  tlie  first  category  being  suffi- 
cient to  put  the  permanent  army  on  the  w^ar  footing,  and 
the  four  classes  of  the  active  militia  being  sufficient  to 
complete  the  cadres  of  the  same  militia,  the  second  cate- 
gories are  really  complementary  troops  serving  to  replace 
casualties  in  the  field  army. 

The  men  of  the  third  category  are  not  in  peace  time 
called  to  service,  except  for  a  few  weeks'  training.  All  the 
third  category  classes  concur  with  the  six  older  classes 
of  the  first  and  the  second  categories  to  form  the  local 
militia.  This  is  very  numerous,  and  although  its  techni- 
cal worth  is  of  very  little  importance,  except  in  that  por- 
tion of  it  whicli  is  formed  of  first  category  men,  it  can, 
nevertheless,  in  case  of  protracted  w^ar,  be  used  for  garri- 
son service  and  the  maintenance  of  public  peace,  thereby 
affording  means  of  resistance  to  the  last  extremity. 


55 


<-m 


•■if  I 


ti 


iiii 


A^>    OF  THT?      '•s^ 

fUiriVERSITT] 


THE  ITALIAN   ARMY  353 

An  institution  peculiar  to  Italy  is  that  of  the  town 
militia  ("Milizia  Comunale"),  which  the  town  authori- 
ties can  by  permission  of  the  national  government  consti- 
tute with  furlough  men  of  any  category,  whether  they 
belong  to  the  permanent  army,  the  active  or  the  local 
militia.  The  town  militia  assist  in  case  of  need  in  the 
maintenance  of  the  public  peace  and  order. 

The  strength  of  the  w^hole  of  the  Italian  military  es- 
tablishment is  concisely  given  in  the  following  table  : 

PERMANENT  ARMY. 

Officers.— Officers,  partly  under  arms,  partly  ou  furlough. . .       19,458 

Horses  ia  active  service 9,554 

Troop. — Men,  partly  under  arms,  partly  on  furlough 804,801 

Horses  in  active  service 38,949 

Active  Militia. — Officers  on  furlough 6,096 

Troops  on  furlough 369,998 

Local  Militia. — Officers  on  furlough 9,935 

Troops  on  furlough 1,543,533 

Total.— Officers 35,474 

Troops 2,718,333 

To  estimate  correctly  the  real  worth  of  this  enormous 
number  of  men  it  is  necessary  to  give  some  facts  showing 
the  amount  and  kind  of  instruction  received  by  them. 
Of  the  permanent  army  about  250,000  are  kept  under 
arms  3  years,  and  their  instruction  and  military  training 
extend  over  the  whole  of  that  period.  About  384,000  are 
on  furlough,  but  have  also  received  3  years'  instruction. 
The  remaining  170,000  belong  to  the  second  category — 
that  is,  they  have  received  2  months'  instruction  and  con- 
stitute the  complementary  troops.  Therefore  the  army 
of  the  first  line  consists  of  only  634,000  men.  These, 
however,  can  be  constantly  kept  to  their  full  total,  even 
during  a  protracted  war. 

23 


354  THE   ITALIAN  ARMY 

Of  the  370,000  men  of  the  active  militia,  about  200,000 
have  received  3  years'  instruction,  and  these,  formed  into 
cadres  commanded  by  officers  mostly  from  the  active 
army,  constitute  a  very  solid  body,  available  for  any  war 
operation,  the  other  170,000  men  from  the  complementary 
troops  being  soldiers  of  the  second  category,  with  only 
a  few  weeks'  instruction.  Lastly,  about  300,000  of  the 
local  militia  are  of  the  first  category,  with  the  regular  3 
years'  training,  and  have  about  170,000  second  category 
men  as  complement.  Italy,  therefore,  is  able  to  oppose 
against  her  enemies  fully  1,444,000  men,  perfectly  trained, 
armed,  and  equipped.  This  number  can  be  maintained 
by  500,000  complementary  troops. 

The  districts  provide  for  the  receiving,  equipping,  and 
forwarding  of  these  complementar}^  troops  to  their  re- 
spective corps. 

We  will  not  consider  the  third  category,  because,  al- 
though it  is  formed  of  the  imposing  number  of  over 
1,000,000  men,  it  only  represents  the  broadness  with 
which  the  Italian  law  of  conscription  has  interpreted  the 
interests  of  society. 

A  close  observer  will  easily  detect  in  the  national  unity 
of  Italy  an  ensemble  of  many  diversities,  and  a  typical 
variety  of  interesting  particulars  which  not  even  the  uni- 
formity of  military  life  and  discipline  can  cancel.  Noth- 
ing is  more  interesting  than  the  sight  of  the  grave  and 
exact  Piedmontese,  the  serious  and  good-natured  Lom- 
bard, the  sceptical  and  alert  Ligurian.  Next  to  them  one 
might  see  the  witty  and  talkative  Venetian  or  Tuscan, 
and  the  jovial  Emilian  or  Eomagnese,  and  contrast  them 
with  the  proud  and  ardent  Sicilian,  or  the  melancholy  and 
pensive  Sardinian.  Then  he  might  be  struck  with  the 
intellectual  acuteness  of  the  lazy  native  of  Campania  Fe- 
lice or  of  sunny  Puglia  standing  by  the  side  of  a  stalwart 


2     !/• 


THE   ITALIAN   ARMY  357 

comrade  from  Calabria,  the  Abruzzi,  or  Liicania.  But  he 
woiikl  probably  notice,  above  all  others,  the  sons  of  Rome, 
of  the  Sabina,  of  the  Marches,  and  of  Umbria,  in  whom 
are  still  reflected  tlie  manly  beauty  of  the  Italic  type,  and 
the  genuine  Italic  spirit,  which  still  shines  in  the  artistic 
cities  of  those  provinces. 

If  the  recruitment  were  made  on  the  principle  of  local- 
ization, this  diversity  of  types  and  characters  would  be- 
come apparent  only  through  a  comparison  of  entire  regi- 
ments from  the  several  regions ;  but  being  on  a  national 
basis,  men  from  all  parts  of  the  kingdom  are  brought 
together,  and  their  special  characteristics  are  observable 
in  each  and  everv  reg-iment. 

The  existence  of  such  diversities  may  at  first  appear  as 
tending  to  hinder  or  weaken  that  harmony  and  cohesion 
of  all  elements  wdiich  is  essential  to  the  efficiency  of  an 
army.  But  thirty  years'  experience  has  proved  that 
there  exists  unity  in  the  army,  and  that  through  it  the 
union  of  all  the  provinces  has  been  cemented.  One  and 
the  same  flag  gathers  under  its  folds  willing  and  con- 
cordant men,  whose  hearts  beat  in  unison  in  the  intense 
love  of  their  country,  forever  freed  from  foreign  masters 
and  the  oppression  of  despotic  rulers. 

The  national  system  of  recruitment,  discarding  as  it 
does  the  principle  of  localization,  is  altogether  too  expen- 
sive, complicated,  and  cumbersome,  both  in  respect  to  the 
requirements  of  the  peace  and  of  the  war  establishment. 
On  the  other  hand,  it  has  had  the  inestimable  advantage 
of  doing  away  with  one  of  the  saddest  legacies  of  ancient 
municipal  rivalries,  and  more  recent  suspicious  policies  of 
petty  rulers  —  namely,  provincial  diifidences,  prejudices, 
and  jealousies. 

However,  the  remembrance  of  these  and  their  evil  ef- 
fects on  the  political  and  military  events  of  1848-49  is  still 


358  THE  ITALIAN  ARMY 

SO  vivid  in  the  minds  of  many  persons  who  witnessed 
those  unfortunate  events,  and  some  of  whom  are  now 
holding  influential  positions  in  the  higher  military  spheres, 
that  it  actually  prevents  a  radical  change  in  the  existing 
system.  Those  persons  believe  that  the  recruitment  on  a 
national  basis  must  be  continued  for  the  advantage  of  a 
more  intimate  social  and  political  fusion  of  all  the  ele- 
ments of  the  nation.  On  the  other  hand,  a  reform  is  ad- 
vocated with  equal  zeal  and  vigor  by  men  not  less  com- 
petent, honorable,  or  anxious  for  the  public  good.  These 
maintain  that  the  time  for  the  adoption  of  the  simpler, 
more  natural,  and  less  expensive  system  of  localization 
has  come;  that  the  experience  of  thirty  years,  as  well  as 
the  straits  of  the  financial  and  economical  situation  of 
the  country,  unmistakably  calls  for  it. 

That  victory  will  finally  be  with  the  latter  can  admit 
of  no  doubt;  it  is  only  a  question  of  time.  But  when 
that  time  will  come  no  one  can  say.  In  the  mean  time 
the  Italian  army  remains  what  it  has  always  been,  the 
most  vivid  expression  of  reconstructed  Italy,  and  the 
most  elevating  and  effective  school  of  national  unification. 


THE  MEXICAN  ARMY 


11 /TILITAEY  traditions  are  strong 
-^*-'-  in  Mexico.  The  race  that  in- 
habited the  Plateau  at  the  time  of  the 
Spanish  conquest  was  a  fighting  race. 
Each  of  the  several  powerful  tribes 
into  which  it  was  divided  Avas  stirred 
by  a  lively  desire  to  fight  one  or  more 
of  the  others,  and  at  short  intervals 
this  desire  was  abundantly  gratified. 
The  fiffhtino:  instinct  was  manifested 
to  a  better  purpose  in  the  gallant  war 
made  against  Spain  between  the  years 
1810  and  1821,  that  resulted  in  Mex- 
ican independence  :  and  it  was  further 
manifested,  together  with  something 
akin  to  the  ancient  division  of  the 
people  into  rival  tribes,  in  the  civil 
wars  which  went  on  almost  without  cessation  for  more 
than  half  a  century  after  independence  was  achieved. 

But  while  the  tribe  fighting  of  the  sixteenth  century 
and  the  partisan  fighting  of  the  nineteenth  century  gave 
the  strongest  proof  of  the  personal  bravery  of  the  Mexican 
people,  they  gave  proof  also  of  the  lack  of  that  national 
instinct  of  cohesiveness  without  which  a  people  cannot  be- 
come great.  Cortes  effected  his  extraordinary  conquest 
by  turning  to  his  own  advantage  the  rivalry  of  the  Mexi- 
can tribes ;  the  American  army  of  invasion  was  able  to 
accomplish  its  series  of  victories  (that  no  right-minded 


ARTILLERY    SERGEANT 


302  THE   MEXICAN  ARMY 

American  can  contemplate  without  pain  and  confusion,  so 
greatly  did  they  do  violence  to  all  sense  of  political  mo- 
rality) because  partisan  dissension  prevented  the  Mexican 
people  from  presenting  to  the  invaders  a  solid  front ;  and 
partisan  feeling  went  so  far  in  the  case  of  the  French  in- 
tervention, by  which  the  Archduke  Maximilian  was  made 
Emperor,  that  a  considerable  contingent  of  Mexican  troops 
fought  with  the  French  against  their  own  countrymen. 

This  condition  of  internal  dissension  now  happily  has 
passed  away,  but  so  recently  that  many  people  still  be- 
lieve Mexico  to  be  the  prey  to  factional  wars.  It  is  unfair, 
however,  to  blame  the  Mexicans  because  they  have  worked 
out  their  salvation  slowly.  For  three  centuries  they  suf- 
fered the  cruel  oppression  of  Spain,  and  for  the  last  of 
these  three  centuries  they  were  most  grievously  priest- 
ridden.  Threescore  years  of  political  fermentation  was 
not  an  unduly  long  time  in  which  to  clear  away  three 
hundred  years'  accumulation  of  political  impurities.  Our 
own  period  of  severe  oppression  under  English  rule  lasted 
for  less  than  a  century,  but  thirteen  very  turbulent  years 
elapsed  between  the  Declaration  of  Independence  in  1776 
and  the  establishment  of  constitutional  government  in 
1789.  What  might  have  come  to  the  United  States  under 
a  ruler  less  unselfish  than  Washington  is  shbwn  not  only 
in  the  histories  of  every  one  of  the  Spanish- American  re- 
publics, but  also  in  the  histor}?-  of  France.  The  crime  of 
long -continued  misgovernment  is  not  easily  atoned  for, 
and  no  matter  how  thoroughly  it  may  be  expiated,  it 
leaves  a  long-lasting  stain. 

The  three  men  who  have  most  decidedlv  and  most  bene- 
ficially  moulded  the  affairs  of  Mexico  have  been  :  Hidal- 
go, who  led  the  revolt  against  Spain  ;  Juarez,  who  led  the 
movement  that  culminated  in  the  establishment  of  a  lib- 
eral constitutional  republic  ;  and  Diaz,  who  has  made  this 


A    RKGIMENTAL    SCOUT 


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THE  MEXICAN   ARMY  365 

constitutional  republic  a  practical  working  success.  Any 
student  of  history  will  understand  that  in  this  scheme  of 
work  Diaz  has  performed  the  most  difficult  part.  Hidal- 
go and  Juarez  had  to  operate  with,  and  at  the  same  time 
were  sustained  by,  an  excited  popular  sentiment  that  need- 
ed only  direction  in  order  to  accomplish  the  work  in  hand, 
for  each  was  a  leader  in  a  profoundly  popular  cause.  In 
the  case  of  Diaz  precisely  the  reverse  of  this  encouraging 
condition  of  affairs  has  obtained.  His  work  has  been  the 
more  difficult  one  of  soothing  a  people  excited  by  more 
than  half  a  century  of  civil  warfare,  of  establishing  whole- 
some but  irksome  restraints  by  enforcing  obedience  to 
laws  Avhich  to  a  considerable  portion  of  the  younger  men 
of  Mexico  practicall}'^  were  unknown,  and  at  the  same  time 
he  has  been  forced  to  solve  a  problem  in  political  finance 
that  a  man  bred  a  statesman  and  financier,  still  more  a 
man  bred  simply  a  soldier,  very  well  might  have  regarded 
as  hopelessly  insoluble.  A  great  part  of  this  most  diffi- 
cult task,  with  the  assistance  of  the  able  men  whom  he 
has  drawn  around  him  as  counsellors,  he  already  has  ac- 
complished, and  what  remains  to  be  done  almost  will  come 
of  itself  from  the  sheer  momentum  of  the  reforms  which 
he  has  set  in  motion,  and  from  the  long-continued  period 
during  which  he  has  secured  to  the  country  the  blessing 
of  profound  peace.  For  the  first  time  since  the  revolt  of 
1810  the  men  of  Mexico  now  between  thirty  and  forty 
years  of  age — the  class  that,  being  fullest  of  mental  and 
physical  energy,  is  the  actual  motive  power  in  all  coun- 
tries— have  had  no  opportunity  to  vent  their  energies  in 
other  than  peaceful  ways,  and  so  have  acquired  substantial 
interests,  the  desire  to  protect  which  is  the  best  possible 
guarantee  against  further  civil  war.  This  wholesome  di- 
version of  the  energies  of  the  country  into  channels  of 
productive  industry — at  once  leading  to  and  stimulated 


366  THE  MEXICAN  ARMY 

by  the  construction  of  an  extended  system  of  railway  that 
has  developed  abundant  resources  of  wealth  heretofore 
latent,  and  that  at  the  same  time  has  consolidated  many 
scattered  communities  —  has  resulted  in  giving  to  the  re- 
public a  moral  and  financial  stability  and  a  national 
strength  such  as  it  never  until  now  has  enjoyed. 

I  have  no  desire  to  make  of  this  paper  a  political  essay, 
but  so  much  of  the  political  history  of  Mexico  as  is  out- 
lined above  is  necessary  to  a  correct  understanding  of  the 
conditions  under  which  the  Mexican  army  has  been  organ- 
ized. It  is  obvious  from  the  facts  stated  that  at  no  point 
of  time  between  the  achievement  of  independence  and  a 
period  not  twenty  years  past  could  an  article  treating  of 
the  Mexican  army  have  been  written,  for  the  reason  that 
while  each  of  the  many  governments  always  has  had  an 
army,  there  always  has  existed  at  the  same  time  at  least 
one  other  army  in  Mexico  composed  w^holly  or  in  part  of 
Mexicans.  That  now,  as  for  several  years  past,  the  Mex- 
ican army  can  be  spoken  of  confidently  is  perhaps  the  best 
evidence  of  the  reality  of  the  peace  that  President  Diaz 
has  secured  to  this  long  war-vexed  land ;  and  not  the  least 
creditable  part  of  what  he  has  accomplished  for  the  good 
of  the  country  at  large  is  that  out  of  very  unpromising 
materials  he  has  created  an  orderly,  well-disciplined,  trust- 
worthy military  force,  that  has  been  used  solely  to  main- 
tain the  power  of  the  constitutional  government  by  enforc- 
ing obedience  to  constitutional  laws. 

The  Mexican  army  consists  of  three  grand  divisions, 
known  as  the  Permanent  Army,  the  Reserve  of  the  Per- 
manent Army,  and  the  General  Reserve,  together  consti- 
tuting nominally  a  force  of  about  130,000  infantry,  26,000 
cavalry,  and  4000  artillery — in  all  about  160,000  men.  The 
Permanent  Army,  the  effective  force  actually  in  service 


UNDRESS    EXGINEER 


THE  MEXICAN  ARMY  369 

and  ready  lor  immediate  use,  is  made  up  of  about  40,000 
men  of  all  arms,  and  is  distributed  through  the  eleven  de- 
partments into  which,  for  mihtary  purposes,  the  republic 
is  divided.  Of  these,  26,000  are  infantry,  8000  are  cav- 
alry, and  the  remainder  are  attached  to  the  engineers,  ar- 
tiller}^  general  and  medical  staffs,  the  military  schools, 
and  the  manufactories  of  material  of  war. 

The  armament  of  this  force,  excepting  in  the  matter  of 
field  artillery,  of  which  the  supply  is  short,  is  excellent. 
The  field  batteries  in  service  consist  of  about  forty  small 
cannon  (80  mms.  cal.)  of  the  Bauye  type,  and  in  addition 
to  these  a  number  of  old  brass  guns,  also  of  small  size,  is 
available  for  the  artillery  reserve.  The  shortness  of  the 
supply  in  this  arm  of  the  service  is  being  repaired  as  rap- 
idly as  possible  by  the  manufacture  of  additional  guns  at 
the  national  foundery.  For  drawing  the  field  batteries 
mules  are  used  in  preference  to  horses,  because  they  are 
believed  to  be,  under  the  climatic  conditions  of  Mexico, 
better  adapted  to  draught  purposes ;  but  it  is  probable 
that  this  advantage  is  more  than  counterbalanced  by  the 
known  unmanageableness  of  mules  under  fire.  The  artil- 
lerymen are  armed  with  Remington  carbines  (cal.  50),  and 
the  same  arm,  in  addition  to  the  sabre,  is  carried  by  the 
cavalrymen.  The  cavalry  horses,  excepting  the  handsome 
mounts  of  the  officers,  are  small  animals  of  native  breed, 
as  tough  and  as  wiry  as  the  men  who  ride  them,  and  as 
capable  of  enduring  enormous  marches  on  a  scant  supply 
of  water  and  food.  The  infantry  is  armed  with  Eeming- 
ton  rifles  (cal.  43).  In  all  arms  of  the  service  the  officers 
and  non-commissioned  officers  carry  Colt's  seven -shot 
revolvers. 

The  disposition  of  the  present  administration  in  mili- 
tary matters  is  eminently  progressive,  and  measures  al- 
ready have  been  taken  to  replace  the  Eemington  rifles 


24 


370  THE  MEXICAN  ARMY 

and  carbines  with  an  automatic  breech-loader  invented  by 
an  officer  of  the  engineers.  The  new  arm  will  be  manu- 
factured by  the  Government  in  its  well-appointed  national 
armory  ("Fabrica  de  Armas)  in  the  City  of  Mexico.  At  the 
national  f oundery,  near  Chapultepec,  the  Government  man- 
ufactures, as  stated  above,  the  guns  used  by  the  artillery 
corps;  and  in  the  national  powder-mill  the  ammunition 
for  the  use  of  the  army  is  prepared.  All  of  these  establish- 
ments are  organized  upon  a  military  basis,  and  the  work- 
men employed  in  them  are  carried  on  the  army  rolls. 

By  the  Constitution  of  1857  the  general-in- chief  of  the 
army  is  the  President  of  the  republic ;  but  the  actual  serv- 
ice usually  is  carried  on  by  a  general  of  division  holding 
the  cabinet  position  of  Minister  of  War,  and  to  his  person 
is  attached  the  general  staff.  The  sub-commands  of  de- 
partments and  military  posts  are  held  by  five  generals  of 
division  and  twenty-two  generals  of  brigade,  and  five  gen- 
erals of  division  and  sixteen  generals  of  brigade  are  car- 
ried on  the  army  lists  of  the  reserves. 

At  present  about  30  per  cent,  of  the  officers  of  the 
army  are  graduates  of  the  national  Military  College  at 
Chapultepec,  where  about  three  hundred  cadets  constant- 
ly are  in  training,  and  whence  about  sixty  officers  are 
graduated  annually.  The  course  pursued  here  is  similar 
to  that  at  West  Point ;  and  the  gradual  retirement  of  the 
older  officers,  combined  with  this  constant  addition  of 
young  officers  who  have  been  thoroughly  trained  in  ac- 
cordance with  the  best  of  modern  military  theories,  is 
having  a  very  marked  effect  in  raising  the  moral  tone  of 
the  army  and  in  increasing  its  practical  efficiency.  The 
cadets,  as  a  rule,  are  drawn  from  the  upper  classes  of 
Mexican  society,  but  among  them  —  and  this  is  a  very 
promising  element  in  the  new  army — are  a  number  of 
young  fellows  whose  brown  or  brownish  skins  show  their 


^Rr.,^jMl>J(lrc^i 


FCLL-DRESS    ENTxIXEER 


THE  MEXICAN   ARMY  373 

native  Indian  blood.  It  is  a  notable  and  hopeful  fact 
that  the  native  Indians  more  and  more  are  coming  to 
the  front  in  the  government  of  their  own  country.  Jua- 
rez, who,  all  things  considered,  was  the  greatest  states- 
man that  Mexico  as  yet  has  produced,  was  an  Indian  of 
the  pure  blood,  and  President  Diaz  owes  in  part  to  his 
dash  of  this  fine  strain  in  his  patient  resolution  and  his 
steady  courage  in  contending  with  great  difficulties.  The 
presence  of  these  brown-faced  lads  among  the  cadets,  and 
of  brown-faced  men  in  the  national  Congress  and  in  the 
various  departments  of  the  Government,  is  a  sign  of 
healthy  national  growth,  of  which  the  importance  scarce- 
ly can  be  overestimated.  As  a  whole,  the  cadet  battalion 
presents  a  fine  soldierly  appearance ;  and  the  individual 
cadet,  as  seen  on  the  streets  of  the  City  of  Mexico  on 
Sundays  and  feast-days,  when  off  from  Chapultepec  on 
all-day  leave,  is  as  well  set-up,  soldierly  a  young  fellow 
as  is  to  be  found  anywhere.  And  even  the  "  cockyness  " 
of  these  spruce  lads  in  their  handsome  uniforms,  while 
likely  to  make  an  old  soldier  smile  a  little  in  a  kindly  way, 
is  a  sign  of  proper  pride  in  an  honorable  profession  that 
an  old  soldier  best  appreciates  and  is  least  disposed  seri- 
ously to  condemn.  Pride  in  the  uniform  means  pride  in 
the  service,  and  is  a  sign  that  when  the  time  comes  for 
fighting,  neither  the  uniform  nor  the  service  will  be  dis- 
graced. The  Chapultepec  boys  have  gallant  traditions  to 
sustain  them,  for  in  the  time  of  the  American  invasion 
the}^  bore  a  brave  part  in  defending  the  hill  on  which 
their  college  stands  against  the  assault  of  Scott's  army. 
At  the  base  of  the  hill  a  monument  fittingly  commemo- 
rates the  heroism  of  these  young  soldiers,  and  eloquently 
exhibits  how  well  they  fought  Ijy  the  long  list  of  names 
graven  upon  it  of  those  who  that  day  died.  Altogether, 
the  Militarv  College  is  an  institution  of  which  the  Mexi- 

24* 


374 


THE  MEXICAN  ARMY 


TYPE    OF   OFFICER "  AWFDLLY    FRENCH' 


cans,  in  the  army  and  out 
of  it,  are  justly  proud ;  for 
both  in  its  processes  and 
in  its  results  it  is  highly 
creditable  to  the  nation  at 
large.  An  important  ad- 
junct to  the  college,  re- 
cently established,  is  the 
artillery  school,  in  which 
officers  of  that  arm  take  a 
post-graduate  course,  and 
to  which  officers  in  the 
service  are  detailed  for  in- 
struction. 

The  rank  and  file  of  the 
army  for  the  most  part  is 
drawn  from  the  lowest 
classes.  For  many  years 
past  the  highly  objectionable  custom  has  prevailed  of  draft- 
ing into  the  service  various  sorts  of  criminals,  and  the  strong 
effort  that  President  Diaz  is  making  to  put  an  end  to  a  cus- 
tom so  demoralizing  is  one  of  the  most  commendable  of  his 
many  army  reforms.  The  practical  effect  of  making  the 
army  more  or  less  a  penal  establishment  is  to  keep  good 
men  out  of  it,  while  the  convict  soldiers  are  prompt  to  de- 
sert whenever  occasion  offers,  and  by  their  example  to 
make  desertions  frequent.  Sometimes  a  rather  humorous 
ingenuity  is  shown  in  slipping  out  of  the  military  bondage. 
In  Monterey,  one  rainy  night  in  March,  1S83,  more  than 
a  score  of  men  belonging  to  a  regiment  drawn  up  at  the 
railway  station,  in  waiting  for  the  arrival  of  the  Presi- 
dent, succeeded  in  getting  away  by  the  device  of  placing 
their  caps  on  the  butts  of  their  muskets,  and  sticking  the 
muskets,  bayonets  down,  in  the  ground  in  their  places  in 


p'^wTmmivr¥\TW"rm^mmsmmm 


t> 


1    ^, 


■^'"^^ 


^^-^  '4 


vW 


f^-'s^    OF   THR^^C^ 

(i'trJflVERSITTl 


THE   3IEXICAN  ARMY 


377 


the  ranks.  By  the  uncertain  torchlight  the  phitoons 
seemed  unbroken,  and  it  was  only  when  the  order  to 
march  was  given,  and  the  regiment  moved  aAvay  and  left 
the    cap -bearing 


muskets  standing 
scattered  over  the 
ground,  that  the 
officers  perceived 
the  trick  whch  had 
been  played  upon 
them. 

Kecapturing  a  de- 
serter is  anything 
but  an  easy  mat- 
ter, for  the  com- 
mon people  invari- 
ably assist  him  to 
escape,  giving  him 
refuge  in  hiding 
and  most  generous- 
ly lying  about  his 
whereabouts,  and 
his  own  comrades 
are  not  especially 
zealous  in  their  ef- 
forts to  recapture 
him.  The  burden 
of  the  chase  usually 
rests  upon  the  offi- 
cer in  command  of 
the  detail,  and  he 
frequently  has  ex- 
periences of  a  sort 
nmch   more   excit- 


LIEUTENANT,  ENGINEER   BATTALION 


378  THE  :\IEX1CAN  ARMY 

ing  than  pleasing.  I  knew  a  young  lieutenant,  but  re- 
cently graduated  from  Chapultepec,  and  all  unused  to 
military  ways  —  a  very  natty  little  officer,  whose  hand- 
some uniform  was  a  source  of  great  pride  and  a  matter  of 
great  care  to  him — who  was  so  mauled  and  tumbled  by 
the  big  wife  of  the  deserter  for  whom  he  was  searching 
that  but  for  the  laughing  interference  in  his  behalf  of  his 
own  men  he  very  well  might  have  been  shaken  to  death 
by  her.  He  came  back  to  barracks  with  a  badly  scratched 
face,  some  rather  serious  bruises,  and  his  beloved  uniform 
in  a  very  shocking  condition ;  and  what  was  still  Avorse, 
he  came  back  without  the  deserter. 

On  another  occasion  I  had  a  more  closely  personal  ex- 
perience of  this  phase  of  army  life  in  Mexico.  I  had  hired 
a  lad  of  twenty  or  thereabouts  as  man-of -all-work — to  help 
with  the  cooking,  and  wash  dishes,  and  do  the  chamber- 
work,  and  run  errands,  and  otherwise  to  make  himself 
useful  as  occasion  required ;  for  in  such  multifarious  ways 
are  men-servants  in  Mexico  employed.  I  was  much  pleased 
with  my  capture,  for  Telesforo  was  a  pleasant,  good-nat- 
ured boy,  and  willing  to  a  degree.  But  we  soon  found  an 
exception  to  his  willingness  in  his  strong  objection  to  be- 
ing sent  out  of  the  house.  To  our  surprise,  each  time  that 
we  wanted  to  send  him  into  the  streets  he  developed  sud- 
denly a  pain  in  his  inside,  from  which  he  recovered  with 
astonishing  rapidity  when  one  of  the  other  servants  had 
Ijeen  sent  in  his  place.  And  he  had  an  anxious  manner, 
and  a  habit  of  instantly  absenting  himself  when  anybody 
knocked  at  the  outer  door,  that  also  struck  us  as  queer. 
Our  surprise  did  not  last  a  great  while,  for  on  the  morning 
of  the  second  day  that  Telesforo  was  in  our  employ  I  was 
summoned  to  an  interview  with  a  polite  young  lieutenant, 
who  courteously  a])ologized  for  being  compelled  to  disar- 
rano-e  our  domestic  affairs  1)V  taking-  our  servant  back  to 


o 

•y. 

C 

c 

I  »'*»''* 

►i 

I?; 


THE  ^lEXICAX  AR:\rY  381 

the  barrack  where  he  belonged.  And  away  Telesforo 
went,  a  pitiably  forlorn  object,  guarded  by  four  grinning 
soldiers  with  bared  bayonets,  and  with  the  polite  lieuten- 
ant— very  much  pleased  with  himself  for  having  effected 
the  capture — jauntily  bringing  up  the  rear. 

In  order  to  lessen  the  incentive  to  desertion,  it  has  been 
customary  to  send  the  men,  whether  enlisted  or  sentenced 
to  army  service,  to  parts  of  the  country  distant  from  their 
own  homes.  And  since  this  class  of  men  constitutes  a 
part  of  the  military  organization,  the  custom  that  obtains 
of  garrisoning  mainly  with  convict  soldiers  the  unhealthy 
posts  in  the  hot  lands  is  one  to  be  commended.  To  a  na- 
tive of  the  Plateau  the  summer  climate  of  the  coast  is  al- 
most sure  to  bring  dangerous  sickness,  and  very  often 
death.  It  is  sound  economy,  therefore,  that  prompts  the 
formation  of  these  garrisons — which  necessarily  must  be 
maintained — of  material  that  the  country  is  the  better  for 
losing. 

But  while  the  army  is,  and  probably  for  some  time 
longer  will  continue  to  be,  tinctured  with  this  unwhole- 
some element  (for  the  pending  reform  cannot  be  effected 
quickly),  the  mass  of  the  rank  and  file  constitutes  a  credit- 
able body  of  troops.  By  far  the  greater  number  of  enlisted 
men  are  of  the  primitive  Mexican  stock,  whose  good-nat- 
ured brown  faces  show  their  freedom  from  mixture  Avith 
the  race  of  their  Spanish  conquerors.  They  are  of  the  same 
stock  as  the  men  who  fought  under  Cortes,  who  helped 
Nuuo  de  Guzman  to  conquer  Panuco,  Jalisco,  and  Micho- 
acan,  who  served  with  Alvarado  in  his  campaign  in  Gua- 
temala, and  who  followed  this  same  captain  in  his  un- 
lucky expedition  to  ISTochistlan,  where  he  met  his  death. 
And  they  have  the  same  soldierly  qualities  of  obedience 
and  bravery  now  that  their  ancestors  had  then.  They  are 
capital  fighters,  especiall}^  in  short  sharp  work  that  can  be 


382  THE  MEXICAN  ARMY 

carried  through  "with  a  rush  and  a  hurrah.  Moreover,  in 
their  many  strenuous  battles  with  the  trained  French 
troops  they  gained  a  steadiness,  a  coolness  under  fire,  and 
a  resoluteness  in  defeat  as  well  as  in  victory  which,  having 
now  become  by  tradition  and  training  characteristic  of 
the  army  as  a  whole,  has  added  vastly  to  the  effectiveness 
of  the  Mexican  troops  as  a  Avarlike  force.  As  to  their  ca- 
pacity for  forced  marches,  and  their  wiry  strength  on  short 
supplies  of  food  and  water,  they  are  not  surpassed  by  any 
troops  in  the  world,  and  in  endurance  of  this  sort  they  are 
very  far  superior  to  the  soldiers  of  North  America  and 
Europe. 

In  the  case  of  the  rank  and  file  comparatively  little  at- 
tention is  paid  to  set-up  or  to  minor  points  of  discipline. 
Even  in  front  of  the  National  Palace  the  sentries  on  duty 
march  up  and  down  their  beats  in  a  slipshod  fashion, 
Avhile  the  relief  loll  about  on  the  stone  benches  smoking 
cigarettes  and  otherwise  makino^  themselves  comfortable. 
Doubtless  the  practical  impossibility  of  keeping  up  any 
show  of  smartness  in  brown  linen  blouse  and  trousers — 
which,  with  leather  sandals  (the  best  foot-gear  ever  de- 
vised for  marching),  constitutes  the  undress  uniform — has 
much  to  do  with  the  general  carelessness  that  apparently 
is  suffered  to  go  unrebuked. 

But  on  dress  parade  these  same  easy-going  soldiers  pre- 
sent a  very  creditable  appearance.  Indeed,  I  never  saw 
anywhere  a  more  soldierly  body  of  men  than  the  force 
that  marched  in  review  past  the  President  on  the  5th  of 
May,  1885.  At  this  time  differences  with  Guatemala, 
growing  out  of  the  interminable  boundary  dispute,  threat- 
ened war,  and  rumors  also  were  flying  about  that  a  certain 
prominent  general  contemplated  trying  his  hand  at  get- 
ting up  a  revolution.  Wliatever  may  have  been  its  pur- 
pose, the   Government   at   this   time   assembled   in   and 


,r^.^irr-^^t^.^l^%^^.fi^^^ 


BUGLER    OF    CAVALRY 


THE  MEXICAN  ARMY  385 

ai'ouml  the  City  of  Mexico  an  army  of  20,000  men  of  all 
arms,  and  on  the  Fifth  of  May — one  of  the  two  great  na- 
tional hoHdays — this  force,  splendidly  armed  and  eqnipped, 
was  paraded  through  the  streets  of  the  capital.  The  linen 
uniforms  were  replaced  by  handsome  suits  of  blue  cloth, 
and  the  sandals  by  leather  shoes,  in  which  the  men  walked 
gingerly ;  the  accoutrements  and  arms  were  in  fine  form ; 
and  the  men,  massed  in  broad  columns,  bore  themselves  in 
as  soldierly  a  fashion  as  the  most  rigid  disciplinarian  could 
desire.  There  was,  moreover,  a  prompt,  business-like  air 
about  the  demonstration  that  produced  an  effect  very  un- 
like that  of  an  ordinary  parade  or  review.  The  marching 
pace  of  the  infantry  was  almost  a  double-quick ;  the  cav- 
alry frequently  moved  at  a  trot ;  and  some  of  the  batteries 
— a  break  in  the  procession  giving  them  the  opportuni- 
ty— dashed  by  at  a  gallop.  So  rapid  was  the  movement 
that  the  entire  force  swept  past  the  reviewing  stand  in  but 
a  little  more  than  two  hours — suggesting  possibilities  of 
quick  evolution  in  the  field  and  of  rapid  concentration  at 
any  given  point  that  must  have  been  decidedly  dishearten- 
ing to  any  intending  revolutionists  (supposing  that  a  revo- 
lution was  contemplated)  who  were  on  hand  to  witness  this 
instructive  object-lesson.  And  it  is  certain  that,  after  so 
salutary  a  display  of  a  national  army  abundantly  strong 
enough  to  crush  instantly  any  attempt  to  overthrow  the 
constitutional  government,  the  flying  rumors  in  regard  to 
a  mutinous  outbreak  very  suddenly  died  away. 

A  serious  difficulty  under  which  the  army  labors  is  the 
lack  of  an  adequate  baggage  train.  This  is  a  matter  of 
less  importance  than  it  would  be  to  an  army  composed  of 
Xorth  American  or  European  soldiers ;  for  the  Mexican 
soldiers  belong  to  a  race  that  is  famous  for  its  burden- 
bearing  capacity,  and  their  camp  equipment  is  exceeding- 
ly light,  for  the  lower  classes  practically  know  nothing  of 

25 


>e,KfljlK<"T. 


4«i,^ 


A    (JEXDAiniE 


A  J^ 


personal  comfort,  and  the  common  soldiers,  drawn  from 
these  classes,  carry  very  scant  kits.  In  barracks  the  men 
sleep  curled  up  in  their  blankets  on  the  floor;  on  the 
march  they  think  that  they  are  doing  very  well  if  they 
can  get  two  rations  a  day  of  boiled  beans,  and  they  can 
sleep  at  night  on  anything.  As  the  officers  also  go  in 
light  marching  order,  the  actual  amount  of  baggage  to  be 


THE  MEXICAN  ARMY 


387 


carried  relatively  is  small,  yet  it  is  sufficient  to  pack  men 
and  horses  so  heavily  as  greatly  to  retard  the  movement 
of  troops.  In  the  case  of  war  this  lack  of  adequate  means 
of  transportation  undoubtedly  would  be  severely  felt ;  but 
in  the  routine  of  the  service,  in  the  mere  changing  of  gar- 
risons, it  is  a  matter  of  no  especial  consequence,  and  is 
of  less  consequence  now  than  it  was  before  the  days  of 
railroads,  for  every  important  city  in  Mexico,  exceptino- 


A    RURAL 


388  THE  MEXICAN   ARMY 

Oajaca,  Durango,  and  the  ports  of  the  west  coast,  now  is 
connected  with  the  capital  by  raih 

Even  tlie  women  who  follow  the  array — more  in  pro- 
portion than  the  rules  of  our  service  allow — are  no  great 
sufferers  by  the  lack  of  baggage- wagons,  for  a  Mexican 
woman  usually  can  walk  with  the  stride  and  the  strength 
of  a  man.  The  presence  of  the  women  and  a  sprinkling 
of  children  about  the  camps  and  barracks  adds  a  pictu- 
resque feature  to  the  array  life,  and  the  sight  of  corafort- 
able  little  groups  deeply  interested  in  cooking  processes 
frequently  gives  an  exotic  air  of  homeliness  to  most  un- 
horae-like  surroundings.  Like  the  men,  the  women  take 
the  discomforts  of  the  service  with  the  philosophical 
cheerfulness  that  is  characteristic  of  the  race  whence  they 
are  sprung,  and  indeed  they  encounter  little  more  of  hard- 
ship in  following  the  army  than  they  do  in  remaining  in 
their  homes,  and  they  are  sure — as  they  are  not  sure  in 
their  own  homes — of  a  sufficient  supply  of  food. 

Since  he  must  carry  his  belongings  on  his  own  back  or 
on  the  back  of  his  horse,  and  since  both  of  these  already 
are  sufficiently  burdened,  the  temptation  to  the  common 
soldier  to  increase  his  kit  is  not  strong ;  and  even  should 
he  be  disposed  to  provide  himself  with  additional  com- 
forts, the  limits  of  his  pay  would  be  reached  before  he 
had  greatly  enlarged  his  outfit.  The  nominal  pay  of  en- 
listed men  in  the  infantry  is  four  reales  (a  real  equalling 
about  nine  cents  of  our  money)  a  day,  but  they  actually 
receive  only  two  and  a  half  reales^  the  remainder  being  re- 
served in  the  battalion  fund  until  the  termination  of  the 
period  of  enlistment.  Enlisted  men  in  the  cavalry  and 
artillery  nominally  receive  five  reales  a  day,  and  actually 
receive  three  and  a  half.  As  all  payments  are  made  in 
silver,  the  paymaster's  cart,  drawn  by  a  string  of  mules, 
usually  is  as  heavy  as  an  ammunition- wagon. 


INFANTRY    OF    THE    LINE 


THE   MEXICAN   ARMY  391 

A  very  important  subdivision  of  the  army  is  the  gen- 
darmeria,  a  force  charged  with  certain  classes  of  police 
duties,  of  which  the  most  responsible  is  that  of  keeping 
the  highways  clear  of  robbers.  The  section  especially 
employed  as  a  road  guard  is  known  as  the  Rurales,  and  is 
by  all  odds  the  most  picturesque,  and  in  some  respects  is 
the  most  meritorious,  body  of  troops  in  the  Mexican  serv- 
ice. The  beginning  of  this  famous  corps  was  in  the  time 
of  Santa  Anna,  when  General  Lagarde  organized  a  troop 
of  ranchmen  that  was  known  popularly — because  of  the 
ranchero  dress  of  leather  that  its  members  wore — as  the 
Cuerados.  On  the  fall  of  Santa  Anna  the  Cuerados  took 
to  the  road,  and  Avere  such  successful  highwaymen  that 
they  presently  were  given,  because  of  the  lavish  ornamen- 
tation of  silver  upon  their  leather  garments,  the  new  nick- 
name of  the  Plateados.  The  headquarters  of  the  organi- 
zation were  in  the  mountain  of  the  Malinche,  near  Puebla, 
and  its  members  very  diligently  worked  the  highway 
between  the  capital  and  Vera  Cruz.  Nor  must  these 
highwaymen  be  classed  with  ordinary  vulgar  robbers. 
The  conditions  of  the  country  at  this  period  were  such 
that  hundreds  of  men  had  no  choice  between  starving 
and  stealing,  and  the  Plateados  conducted  their  irregu- 
lar business  in  a  chivalrous  fashion,  and  frequently  mani- 
fested a  generosity  in  their  treatment  of  the  travellers 
who  fell  into  their  hands  quite  worthy  of  the  gallant  tra- 
ditions of  Sherwood  Forest  and  of  the  courteous  customs 
of  Robin  Hood. 

In  Comonfort's  time  the  good  thought  was  acted  upon 
of  turning  the  Plateados  from  road  robbers  into  road 
guards,  and  the  rather  startling  proposal  was  found  to 
work  out  admirably  in  practice.  The  corps  was  organ- 
ized, and  still  is  maintained — being  now  about  4000  strong 
— upon  a  footing  unlike  that  of  any  other  section  of  the 


392  THE  MEXICAN  ARMY 

army.  Each  man  provides  his  own  horse  and  equipment 
(excepting  his  arms),  and  is  paid  ten  reales  a  day,  out  of 
which  he  provides  rations  for  himself  and  forage  for  his 
horse.  The  men  are  armed  with  sabre,  carbine,  and  re- 
volver, and  have  a  service  uniform  of  brown  linen  blouse 
and  trousers,  though  this  is  worn  less  often  than  the  regu- 
lar ranchero  dress  of  jacket  and  trousers  of  soft -dressed 
brown  leather.  The  dress  uniform  is  the  ranchero  cos- 
tume glorified  —  the  leather  jacket  and  trousers  loaded 
down  with  silver  buttons  and  silver  embroidery,  and  the 
wide  felt- hat  richly  trimmed  with  silver  or  even  with 
gold.  The  mountings  of  the  saddles  and  bridles  are  of 
silver,  and  frequently  silver  stirrups  match  the  rider's 
heavy  silver  spurs.  On  dress  parade  the  horses  wear 
housings  of  tooled  and  embroidered  leather,  and  each  man 
carries  at  the  pommel  of  his  saddle  a  light  horse-hair  lari- 
at, and  strapped  fast  to  the  cantle  a  crimson  blanket.  The 
horses  are  by  far  the  finest,  excepting  officers'  mounts,  in 
the  service,  and  are  so  greatly  beloved  and  so  affectionate- 
ly cared  for  that  they  seldom  get  out  of  condition,  while 
on  review  they  positively  shine.  The  men  are  magnifi- 
cent fellows,  fully  looking  the  dare-devils  that  they  actu- 
ally are. 

The  other  important  subdivisions  of  the  army  are  the 
contraresguai'do,  or  custom-house  guard,  mainly  employed 
to  police  the  northern  and  north-eastern  frontier;  the 
scientific  corps,  having  charge  of  the  ISTational  Observa- 
tory and  the  topographical  survey ;  and  the  medical  corps, 
that  includes  regimental  surgeons,  and  that  has  charge  of 
the  several  military  hospitals. 

As  is  the  case  with  our  own  army,  the  normal  condition 
of  the  Mexican  army  is  that  of  a  national  police  force.  It 
is  also,  like  our  own,  a  skeleton  organization  that  can  be 
rapidly  increased  to  a  much  greater  size  should  the  need 


I^IUXiCAN  CAVALRY- 


^SM^ 


CAVALRY    OF    THE    LINE 


JITIVEI  .IT 7) 


:"«^:' 


Vinrrr:^'mr'-"',':'y  TiiiK;,,  •-'£;.:/«";'*,  T 


STABLE    CALL    AT    AN    ARTILLERY    BARRACK 


be  developed  for  a  larger  fighting  force.  Now  that  the 
republic  is  supplied  with  a  complete  system  of  telegraph 
and  is  well  provided  with  railroads,  the  existing  force  is 
ample  to  subdue  all  mutinous  demonstrations,  and  so  to 
nip  revolution  in  the  bud.  One  fertile  cause  of  the  many 
revolutions  in  former  times  was  the  ease  with  which  they 
could  be  started,  and  the  absolute  impunity  with  which 
they  could  be  developed  to  very  considerable  dimensions. 
Without  telegraph  lines,  the  national  Government  could 
know  nothing  of  a  rebellion  in  one  of  the  distant  northern 
States  until  it  had  gained  very  dangerous  headway,  which 
could  still  further  increase  during  the  slow  progress  of  the 
Government  troops  to  the  scene  of  the  outbreak.  For  in- 
stance, news  from  Tamaulipas  (a  State  adjacent  to  Texas, 
that  was  a  veritable  hot-bed  of  revolution  in  former  times) 
could  not  reach  the  capital  under  a  week,  and  an  army 
could  not  march  from  the  capital  to  the  central  part  of 
Tamaulipas  in  less  than  three  weeks  more.     Nor  could  de- 


396  THE  MEXICAN  ARMY 

peiiclence  be  placed  upon  the  garrisons  in  this  region  to 
check  the  revolt.  In  point  of  fact,  the  nucleus  of  the  rev- 
olutionary army  was  very  apt  to  be  the  local  military 
force,  and  the  leader  of  the  movement  was  very  apt  to  be 
the  local  general.  Yet  the  last  attempt  at  a  rising  in  these 
parts,  three  or  four  years  ago,  scarcely  arrived  at  the  dig- 
nity of  a  riot.  Thanks  to  the  telegraph,  to  the  railways, 
and,  above  all,  to  an  army  that  no  longer  is  the  tool  of  in- 
dividuals, but  is  the  loyal  servant  of  the  nation,  the  revolt 
was  crushed  almost  before  it  could  be  said  to  have  had  an 
organized  beginning.  In  like  manner,  in  April  last,  a  riot 
at  Silao — that,  having  its  root  in  an  anti-clerical  demon- 
stration, in  former  times  very  weU  might  have  developed 
into  a  revolution — was  put  down  in  a  single  day. 

As  it  is  to-day — no  longer  a  confused  mass  made  up  of 
scattered  commands  faithful  only  to  their  respective  gen- 
erals, but  an  organization  loyal  to  the  nation  and  to  the 
idea  of  national  unity — the  Mexican  army  is  an  honor  to 
the  Government  that  has  created  it,  and  aif ords  the  surest 
guarantee  that  in  Mexico  the  days  of  revolutions  are  end- 
ed, and  that  the  existing  constitutional  government  will 
endure. 


THE  MILITARY  SITUATION  IN  EUROPE 


THE  ORGANIZATION,  CONSTITUTION,  STRENGTH,  AND  ARMA- 
MENT OF  THE  ARMIES  OF  THE  GREAT  POWERS,  SPRING 
OF    1891 

History  of  all  ages  has  shown  that  important  political  ques- 
tions, by  which  nations  are  divided  and  moved,  can  for  the  greater 
part  be  decided  only  by  the  sword.  "  It  is  the  sword  alone  that 
now  keeps  the  sword  in  the  scabbard,"  said  Field-marshal  Count 
von  Moltke  in  the  German  Parliament,  and  no  power  aspiring  to 
authority  and  independence  in  the  council  of  nations  can,  in  view 
of  warlike  eventualities,  evade  the  necessity  of  bringing  up  its  armed 
forces  to  the  highest  possible  standard  of  efficiency.  But,  as  in 
the  life  and  development  of  nations,  so  in  the  military  realm,  there 
is  no  stop  that  would  not  be  identical  with  regress.  Although 
not  everywhere  in  pursuance  of  the  maxim  Si  vis  pacem,  para 
bellum,  still  with  common  eagerness  and  regardless  of  pecuniary 
cost  Germany,  the  French  Republic,  the  Hapsburg  Monarchy,  the 
vast  empire  of  the  Czar,  Italy,  Great  Britain,  and  the  States  of 
secondary  rank,  rival  in  the  effort  of  rendering  the  most  perfect 
organization,  the  best  armament,  and  the  greatest  possible  strength 
to  their  military  forces.  The  ways  leading  to  this  end  differ  ac- 
cording to  public  institutions,  popular  habits,  geographical  forma- 
tion, and  the  financial  condition  of  a  country  ;  but  one  principle  is 
being  maintained  by  all  alike.  Great  Britain  alone  excepted,  name- 
ly, that  of  compulsory  and  personal  liability  to  service,  whereby 
"  every  able-bodied  person  is  bound  to  serve  in  the  army  and  de- 
fend the  country  while  in  his  full  physical  strength  and  health." 

The  lively  interest  taken  at  present  by  the  public  generally  in 
the  development  and  formation  of  armed  forces  will  be  gratified  by 
the  publication  of  a  series  of  articles  comprising  reports  in  detail 
of  the  present  organization,  armament,  and  strength  of  the  several 
armies,  preceded  by  a  comparative  description  of  the  condition  of 
the  armies  in  the  several  States,  and  of  the  military  situation  in 
Europe  in  the  spring  of  1891. 


400  THE   MILITARY   SITUATION    IN  EUROPE 

It  should  be  mentioned  that  in  this  essay  the  armed  force  of 
Great  Britain  is  touched  merely  incidentally  because  her  main 
strength  does  not  lie  in  lier  land,  but  in  her  naval  forces. 

A. — Liability  to  Service  and  Military  Constitutions 

The  principle  of  compulsory  service  has  been  adopted  by  all 
European  States,  with  the  only  exception  of  Great  Britain,  which 
still  holds  on  to  the  system  of  voluntary  enlistment.  Every  able- 
bodied  man  is  liable  to  service  in  the  army.  Prussia  was  first 
among-  the  Great  Powers  to  enforce  this  rule,  when  during  the 
memorable  campaign  of  1813  to  1815  it  resolved  to  fight  and  over- 
throw the  Corsican  conqueror.  The  fundamental  law  of  the  mili- 
tary constitution,  proposed  and  drafted  by  the  highly  meritorious 
General  von  Boyen,  was  enacted  September  3,  1814.  The  gen- 
eral liability  to  service  which  had  been  temporarily  introduced  in 
August,  1813,  was  declared  a  permanent  institution,  and  the  army 
the  school  for  educating  the  nation  for  war.  Not  until  half  a  cen- 
tury afterwards  the  general  liability  to  service  was  initiated  and 
adopted  by  the  other  German  States,  and  the  remaining  Great 
Powers  were  compelled  to  follow  suit  consequent  to  the  experi- 
ences of  the  war  of  1871-72.  Everywhere  the  tried  and  approved 
precepts  of  Prussia  have  served  as  example. 

Different  provisions  prevail  as  to  the  duration  of  the  service  lia- 
bility, the  methods  of  absolving  the  same,  and  the  enlistment  of 
professional  and  educational  classes  of  the  population ;  yet  among 
all  the  Great  Powers,  barring  only  Great  Britain,  the  principle  is  at 
present  enforced  that  all  men  are  liable  to  service  during  the  term 
of  their  most  vigorous  age.  The  armies  represent,  therefore,  in 
the  best  acceptation  of  the  word,  the  ■peoi^le  in  arms. 

Most  stringent  of  all  in  the  enforcement  of  the  general  liability 
to  service  are  the  military  laws  of  France  and  Russia.  Only  those 
unfit  for  military  employment  are  exempt  from  service  in  war  and 
in  peace ;  in  Russia  also  the  clergymen  of  any  Cliristian  denomina- 
tion and  the  psalm  -  readers  of  the  Orthodox  (Graeco  -  Catholic) 
Church  while  being  educated  at  clergical  academies. 

The  French  military  law  of  July  15,  1889,  recognizes  no  exemp- 
tions from  service  whatsoever ;  limited  furloughs  in  time  of  peace 
are  granted  instead  to  those  who  are  oflicially  certified  as  being  sup- 
porters of  families,  and  teachers  and  students  at  especially  desig- 
nated educational  institutions.  As  it  would  be  impossible,  however, 
for  financial  reasons  alone,  to  keep  under  arms  for  three  years  the 


THE  MILITARY    SITUATION  IN  EUROPE  401 

entire  annual  contingent  of  recruits,  the  law  provides  for  the  dis- 
charge of  thoroughly  trained  men  at  the  end  of  their  first  or 
second  year  of  active  service  in  such  proportions  as  to  bring  down 
the  peace  strength  of  the  army  to  the  number  annually  determined 
by  the  General  Assembly.  Preferences  in  this  connection  are  de- 
cided by  lot,  and  for  this  purpose  every  recruit  at  his  enrolment 
draws  a  number,  and  only  those  having  the  highest  are  entitled  to 
consideration. 

In  Russia  the  general  liability  to  service  was  introduced  by  the 
act  of  January  13,  1874.  Subject  to  the  same  is  the  entire  male 
population,  regardless  of  social  standing,  save  that  the  inhabitants 
of  certain  Asiatic  districts  and  the  Mohammedans  are  exempt  in 
consideration  of  the  payment  of  a  money  tax.  While  exemptions 
from,  or  temporary  postponement  of,  active  service  are  granted 
only  exceptionally  in  cases  where  it  would  entail  hardships  owing 
to  family,  professional,  or  civic  relations,  the  educated  classes  of 
the  population  enjoy  the  legal  privilege  of  an  abridgment  of  their 
time  of  service  from  1  to  4  years.  The  latter  is  regulated  by  the 
standard  of  learning  acquired  at  one  of  the  four  designated  species 
of  educational  institutions,  and  it  is  larger  in  cases  of  voluntary  en- 
listment, smaller  in  cases  of  regular  levy. 

In  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Italy,  the  requirements  of 
civic  life  are  receiving  far  more  consideration  than  in  France  and 
Russia.  There  are  allowed,  owing  to  domestic  relations,  either 
total  exemption  from  service,  or  transfer  into  the  Ersatz  reserve, 
Landsturm,  Landwehr  or  Territorial  Militia  without  any,  or  after  a 
short  active  service  ;  also  postponement  of  service  on  the  part  of 
such  as  are  holding  positions  under  the  civil  service  and  unable  to 
leave  their  places,  and  rendition  of  the  active  service  as  one-year 
volunteers.  The  latter  have  to  fulfil  certain  requirements  as  to 
science  and  learning,  they  must  clothe,  equip,  and  support  them- 
selves at  their  own  expense,  or,  as  in  Italy,  pay  into  the  State 
Treasury  a  sum  of  1000  to  1200  lire  according  to  entering  foot  or 
horse  troops. 

The  institution  of  the  one-year  volunteers  differs  essentially  in 
that  the  German  volunteers  have  to  do  active  service  for  but  a 
single  year,  while  in  Austria  those  failing  to  pass  the  examination 
for  qualification  as  officers  of  the  reserve  or  Landwehr  have  to  re- 
main with  their  troop  another  year. 

In  Germany  the  liability  to  service,  according  to  the  law  of  Feb- 
ruary 11,  1888,  commences  at  the  age  of  17  and  ends  with  the 
45th  year.     Every  German  capable  of  bearing  arms  belongs  for  7 

2G 


402  THE  MILITARY  SITUATION  IN  EUROPE 

years  to  the  standing  army — serving  3  years  in  the  ranks  and  4  in 
the  reserve  —  for  the  5  years  following  to  the  first  levy  of  the 
Landwehr ;  then  np  to  the  31st  day  of  March  of  that  year  in 
which  he  attains  the  age  of  39  to  the  second  levy  of  the  Land- 
wehr. The  Ersatz  reserve,  which  is  called  out  in  case  of  mobili- 
zation for  the  completion  of  the  standing  array  and  for  the  forma- 
tion of  depot  troops,  is  made  up  of  such  as  have  not  been  enrolled, 
either  because  of  being  above  the  required  number  of  men,  or  be- 
cause of  minor  bodily  infirmities  or  domestic  relations.  The  term 
of  service  in  the  Ersatz  reserve  is  12  years,  during  which  time  the 
men  may  be  called  out  to  participate  in  three  exercises,  lasting 
altogether  20  weeks.  After  that  the  men  enter  either  the  second 
levy  of  the  Landwehr  or  the  first  levy  of  the  Landsturm,  accord- 
ing to  their  training. 

The  Landsturm  is  destined,  in  case  of  war,  for  the  defense  of 
the  country,  also  in  cases  of  extraordinary  emergencies  for  the 
completion  of  the  army  or  navy.  It  comprises  all  those  liable  to 
service  from  the  l7th  to  the  45th  year  who  are  not  enrolled  either 
in  the  army  or  the  Landwehr.  It  is  divided  into  two  levies,  the 
one  comprising  all  men  up  to  the  age  of  39,  the  second  up  to  the 
age  of  45  years. 

The  new  Austrian  military  law,  which  went  into  effect  April 
11,  1889,  binds  to  10  years'  service  in  the  army,  7  of  which  are  to 
be  absolved  in  the  reserve.  Those  entered  directly  into  the  Er- 
satz reserve — under  the  same  conditions  as  in  Germany — have  also 
to  serve  10  years;  in  time  of  peace  they  receive  military  training 
for  a  period  of  8  weeks,  after  which  they  are  called  out  for  exer- 
cises every  second  or  third  year.  Having  completed  his  term  of 
service  in  the  army,  the  Austrian  soldier  enters  for  2  years  the 
Landwehr  or  the  Ersatz  reserve,  into  which  organizations,  how- 
ever, some  men  are  entered  directly  at  their  enlistment.  The  same 
conditions  prevail  in  the  Hungarian  Landwehr  and  Ersatz  reserve, 
which  are  known  bv  the  name  of  "  Honved  Army."  Bv  the 
Landsturm  Act  of  1886  the  Landsturm  is  described  as  a  contingent 
part  of  the  military  force  to  be  called  into  service  only  when  the 
country  is  threatened  with  war.  Those  liable  to  service  in  the 
Landsturm  are  divided  into  two  levies,  the  first  comprising  all  ages 
from  19  to  37,  the  second  from  38  to  42.  The  Landsturm  of  the 
first  levy  may  be  applied  for  filling  up  the  army  and  Landwehr,  so 
that  the  term  of  service  in  the  army,  which  was  formerly  12  years, 
is  actually  extended  to  17  years. 

Italy  also  has  yielded  to  the  necessity  of  reforming  her  military 


THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE  408 

system  in  accordance  with  modern  views.  The  liability  to  service 
commences  with  tlie  19th  and  ends  with  the  39th  year,  but  the 
term  of  service  in  the  ranks  varies  according  to  arms  and  military 
employment;  hence  it  is  not  uniformly  reg-ulated.  The  annual 
contingent  of  recruits  is  divided  into  three  classes  or  categories,  of 
which  the  men  of  the  first  class  do  active  service  either  for  4  years 
in  the  cavalry  or  for  3  years  in  the  other  arms;  for  the  next  5 
years  they  are  kept  on  an  "  indefinite  army  furlough,"  whereupon 
they  join  for  4  years  the  Mobile  Militia,  and  for  7  years  the  Terri- 
torial Militia.  The  men  assigned  to  the  second  category  are  liable 
to  12  years'  service,  of  which  they  remain  for  not  more  than  8 
years  on  "  indefinite  army  furlough,"  and  4  years  in  the  Mobile 
Militia,  while  for  the  remaining  7  years  they  belong  to  the  Terri- 
torial Militia.  For  a  portion  of  the  contingent  of  the  first  category 
the  term  of  active  service  may,  probably  from  financial  reasons, 
be  limited  to  2  years.  The  men  assigned  to  the  third  category 
are  in  time  of  peace  exempt  from  service,  and  are  enrolled  in  tlie 
Territorial  Militia. 

In  France,  by  the  provisions  of  the  Act  of  July  15,  1889,  the 
liability  to  service  continues  for  25  years.  As  the  recruits  are  not 
enlisted  until  they  reach  the  age  of  21,  the  French  are  subject  to 
service  liability  up  to  their  46th  year.  They  have  to  serve  10 
years  m  the  active  army,  generally  3  years  in  the  ranks,  and  7  in 
the  reserve,  6  in  the  territorial  army,  and  9  in  the  reserve  of  the 
latter. 

The  whole  number  of  annual  classes  at  disposal  in  case  of  war 
amounts,  however,  to  26,  as  the  law  permits  a  prior  enlistment  of 
the  class  to  be  levied  that  year.  It  may  be  mentioned,  also,  that 
the  War  and  Marine  Ministers  are  authorized  by  law,  "  whenever 
circumstances  require  it,"  to  keep  the  third  year's  class  of  the  ac- 
tive army  under  arms  beyond  the  completion  of  3  years'  service. 
Notice  of  such  a  step  has  to  be  given  to  the  National  Legislature 
at  once. 

Reservists  have  to  participate  in  two  exercises  of  4  weeks'  dura- 
tion each,  the  men  of  the  territorial  army  in  one  of  14  davs'  duration. 
The  aforesaid  law  was  amended  in  1890  so  as  to  authorize  the 
calling  out  of  the  territorial  army's  reserve,  heretofore  exempt 
from  those  exercises  for  the  purpose  of  training  in  guard  duty  on 
property  of  common  carriers  (railroads,  telegraph,  and  telephone 
lines,  and  canals).  Such  drills  were  had  for  the  first  time  in  the  fall 
of  1890,  within  the  Third  Army  Corps  district.  As  the  men  of  the 
reserve  of  the  territorial  army  are  subject  to  military  control,  and 


404  THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE 

already  in  time  of  peace  distributed  among  the  troops  and  put  to 
drilling,  this  territorial  reserve  cannot  be  compared  with  the  Ger- 
man Landsturm,  as  is  frequently  done,  because  there  exists  no  legal 
provision  for  the  calling  out  of  the  latter  in  time  of  peace. 

Russians  are  subject  to  military  service  from  their  21st  until  the 
termination  of  their  43d  year.  The  term  of  service  in  the  active 
armv  is  18  years,  5  in  the  ranks  and  13  in  the  reserve.  Next  they 
enter  into  the  Imperial  Militia  comprising  two  levies.  The  first 
levy,  from  which  the  standing  army  is  completed,  is  formed  by 
men  discharged  from  the  latter  and  by  such  men  as  were  enlisted, 
althouo-h  entirely  able-bodied,  above  the  requisite  number.  They 
are  under  military  control,  and  bound  to  participate  in  two  exer- 
cises of  6  weeks'  duration  each.  The  second  levy,  destined  for 
the  formation  of  Imperial  Militia  troops,  consists  of  such  men  as 
are  exempt  from  service  because  of  being  sole  supporters  of  fami- 
lies, and  of  all  not  entirely  able-bodied  men. 

In  the  Cossack  armies  the  liability  to  service  commences  with 
the  18th  year,  and  lasts  for  20  years,  of  which  4  are  served  in  the 
active  army.  To  the  Cossack  Militia  belong  all  Cossacks  capable 
of  serving,  regardless  of  age.  The  latter  is  called  out  by  imperial 
order  only  in  extraordinary  emergencies  of  war. 

The  requirements  as  to  physical  qualification  and  size  on  enter- 
ino-  the  army  are  approximately  similar  in  the  several  countries. 
In  France  the  minimum  size  is  fixed  at  1.54  centimetres,  in  the 
other  States  at  from  1.55  to  1.57  centimetres.  In  France  alone 
voung  men  who  do  not  come  up  to  the  physical  standard  of  serv- 
ice capability  are  liable  to  army  service;  they  are  employed  in  the 
services  auxiliaires  under  military  control  as  clerks,  mechanics,  or 
administrative  officers. 

The  percentage  of  recruits  who  have  little  or  no  schooling  while 
beino-  infinitely  small  in  Germany,  amounted  in  France  in  1888  to 
9.8,  and  in  Russia  in  1889  to  YO  per  cent. 

The  war  strength  of  an  army  is  defined  by  the  number  of  men 
annually  enlisted,  and  by  the  number  of  annual  classes  at  the  dis- 
posal of  the  Government.  Leaving  out  of  consideration  the  Ersatz 
reserve  and  Landsturm  in  Germany  and  the  corresponding  forma- 
tions in  other  States,  the  time  of  service  in  the  standing  army  is 
as  follows:  Germany,  7  years;  France,  10  years;  Russia,  18 
years;  Austria-Hungary,  10  years;  Italy,  12  years.  The  entire 
extent  of  liability  to  service  (including  Landsturm,  etc.,)  is :  in 
Germany,  25  years;  Austria-Hungary,  22  years;  Italy,  19  years; 
France,  25  years;  Russia,  23  years. 


THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE  405 

As  to  the  number  of  annually  enlisted  recruits,  Russia  takes 
the  front  rank  with  255,000  men  ;  France  follows  with  at  least 
220,000  men,  whom  she  annually  levies  for  her  land  army,  not 
counting  the  naval  contingent.  The  quota  of  recruits  in  Ger- 
many, Austria-Hungary,  and  Italy  may  be  set  down  as  being  in 
average  170,000,  103,000  and  82,000  respectively. 

The  French  Republic  is  the  only  Great  Power  which  levies  a 
tax  from  such  of  her  citizens  as  either  do  not  enlist  in  the  stand- 
ing army  or  who  enlist,  for  some  reasons,  for  a  shorter  term  than 
three  years.  Exempt  from  such  tax  are  only  those  who  have 
their  impecuniousness  attested  to  otRcially.  This  tax,  known  as 
militia  tax,  is  composed  of  a  tax  on  real  estate  to  the  amount  of 
6  francs,  and  of  an  additional  tax  to  be  fixed  by  the  authorities 
in  proportion  to  the  earnings  or  income  of  the  individual  or  his 
relatives,  payable  annually  as  long  as  the  liability  to  active  service 
in  the  army  lasts.  As  this  militia  tax  has  been  in  effect  only  a 
short  time  the  revenue  derived  from  it  cannot  be  exactly  stated, 
but  it  may  be  estimated  at  30,000,000  francs  at  the  lowest. 

B. — Composition    of    the    Armies 

I.  —  INFANTRY 

The  most  numerous  part  of  the  army  in  all  States  is  the  infan- 
try. It  is  also,  and  always  will  be,  the  most  important  arm  on  the 
field  of  action,  although  being  excelled  as  to  range  and  effect  of 
firing  by  the  artillery,  as  to  speed  and  elan  by  the  cavalry.  Uni- 
formity in  the  armament,  training,  and  employment  of  the  infantry 
has  been  achieved  everywhere ;  the  distinction  existing  between 
infantry,  grenadier,  fusileer,  jager,  zouave,  tirailleur,  and  schtitzen 
regiments  is  limited  to  the  name,  equipment,  and  manner  of  re- 
cruiting. Elite  troops,  as  in  the  time  of  Napoleon  I.  the  gardes, 
no  longer  exist;  the  Prussian  and  Russian  guard  corps,  although 
filled  by  a  picked  complement  of  recruits,  are  not  to  be  considered 
as  such,  for  their  organization,  training,  and  employment  is  the 
same  as  that  of  the  remaining  parts  of  the  army. 

For  mountain  campaigns,  France  has  especially  trained  and 
equipped  12  jager  battalions;  Austria-Hungary  the  Tyrol  jager 
regiment,  numbering  now  12  battalions;  and  Italy  7  regiments 
of  alpine  infantry  (Alpini). 

The  infantry  regiment  consists  in  war  as  in  peace  of  4  battalions 
in  Austria-Hungary  and  Russia ;    of  3  in  the  remaining   States. 


406  THE  MILITARY   SITUATION   IN  EUROPE 

Witli  few  exceptions  the  battalions  have  4  companies ;  in  France, 
however,  all  of  the  30  jager  battalions  will  be  gradually  formed 
with  6  companies,  a  change  which  has  been  effected  already  in  17 
battalions. 

The  French  subdivisionary  infantry  regiments  have  so-called 
cadres  complementaires,  numbering  9  officers  and  72  non-commis- 
sioned officers,  and  intended  in  case  of  mobilization  for  the  forma- 
tion and  transfer  to  the  regiments  mixtes  of  the  fourth  battalions 
of  the  regiments.  The  only  country  that  maintains  reserve  and 
fort  infantry  troops  in  time  of  peace  is  Russia. 

The  number  of  infantry  formations  on  the  first  day  of  April, 
1891,  was,  in  the  army  of  the  German  Empire,  173  infantry  regi- 
ments and  19  jager  (schiitzen)  battalions,  aggregating  538  bat- 
talions; France,  162  infantry  regiments,  30  jager  battalions  (of 
which  17  had  6,  the  remainder  4  companies),  4  regiments  of  zou- 
aves, 4  Algerian  tirailleur  regiments,  2  foreign  regiments,  5  bat- 
talions of  Algerian  light  infantry — total  561  battalions  (the  Na- 
tional Legislature  had  at  that  time  granted  the  formation  of  26 
additional  jager  companies,  and  the  establishment  of  an  infantry 
regiment  bearing  the  number  163  was  intended  for  October  1, 
1891  ;  the  French  infantry  will  be  further  increased  by  the  forma- 
tion of  a  colonial  army  under  orders  of  the  War  Minister,  the  in- 
fantry of  which  shall  be  composed  of  8  regiments  having  each  3 
battalions  in  the  home  country,  besides  the  troops  maintained  in 
the  colonies);  Russia,  162  infantry  (guard,  grenadier,  and  army 
infantry)  regiments  of  768  battalions — 724-  schiitzen  battalions 
formed  in  1  2  brigades  and  8-^  independent  battalions,  20  Turkes- 
tan, 5  East  Siberian,  and  8  West  Siberian  line  battalions,  2  regi- 
ments and  80  battalions  reserve  infantry  (each  battalion  to  form 
in  case  of  war  a  regiment),  7  reserve  battalions  in  Asiatic  Russia, 
6  regiments  and  12  battalions  reserve  infantry  in  the  Caucasus,  6 
Cossack  battalions — total,  1029^  battalions. 

It  is  intended  to  increase  the  fort  infantry  by  the  addition  of  3 
battalions  and  the  transformation  of  the  40th  Reserve  Infantry 
Regiment  (2  battalions)  into  Army  Infantry  Regiment  No.  165 
with  4  battalions,  which  change  may  by  this  time  have  already 
taken  place. 

France  and  Russia  have,  therefore,  a  peace  organization  of  1590^ 
(or,  with  the  proposed  increases,  of  1598-^)  battalions  of  infantry 
as  against  1340  battalions  in  Germany,  Austria-Hungary,  and  Italy. 

In  case  of  war,  however,  France  and  Russia  would  be  compelled 
to  leave  in  their  extra-European  possessions  at  least  100  battalions. 


THE  MILITARY   SITUATION   IN  EUROPE  40V 

so  that  their  superiority  in  the  number  of  battalions  as  compared 
with  that  of  the  States  of  the  Triple  Alliance  would  be  reduced 
to  150. 

II. CAVALRY 

The  system  of  uniformity  in  training  and  equipment  prevailing 
in  the  infantry  has  of  late  been  also  adopted  for  the  cavalry.  The 
retention  of  different  kinds  of  arms — cuirassiers,  heavy  horse,  dra- 
goons chevaux-legers,  uhlans,  and  hussars  in  Germany  ;  dragoons, 
chasseurs-a-cheval,  cuirassiers,  and  hussars  in  France  ;  uhlans,  hus- 
sars, and  dragoons  in  Austria ;  lancieri  and  cavallegieri  in  Italy — 
may  be  considered  justifiable  as  an  historical  tradition.  Distinc- 
tion between  heavy  and  light  cavalry  will  always  be  inevitable, 
owing  to  the  heavier  or  lighter  material  of  men  and  horses.  The 
ideal  of  a  unity  as  to  designation  and  equipment  is  nearest  ap- 
proached in  the  Russian  cavalry,  where,  aside  from  the  10  regi- 
ments of  guards,  only  dragoon  and  Cossack  regiments  exist. 

Whether  by  the  new  tactics  and  armament  of  the  infantry  the 
decisive  part  the  cavalry  has  played  in  battle  will  be  in  a  great 
measure  reduced,  and  its  action  chiefly  limited  to  the  duty  of  re- 
connoitring and  pursuit,  is  a  question  which  can  be  finally  decided 
only  by  the  experiences  of  a  campaign.  Undoubtedly  there  is 
also  in  the  future  reserved  for  the  cavalry  a  decisive  part  by 
prompt  and  courageous  entering  into  battle,  but  for  such  action 
the  occasions  may  become  more  scarce. 

The  latest  change  in  the  armament  of  the  cavalry,  which  has  in 
part  already  gone  into  effect,  is  its  equipment  with  repeating  rifles 
of  small  calibre.  This  shows  a  tendency  of  employing  on  a  larger 
scale  the  cavalry  in  foot  combat.  There  is  no  doubt  that  Russia 
has  advanced  in  this  direction  further  than  any  other  power.  Her 
horsemen  are  equipped  with  bayonet  rifles,  they  are  required  to 
carry  a  large  amount  of  ammunition,  and  particular  attention  is  paid 
in  the  new  regulations  to  their  training  for  foot  combat  in  closed 
ranks. 

In  the  recent  increase  of  army  strength  the  cavalry  has  partici- 
pated either  in  no  degree  or  in  a  relatively  small  one. 

As  to  numerical  strength  the  cavalry  of  Russia  takes  the  lead 
among  the  Great  Powers  owing  to  her  almost  inexhaustible  Cos- 
sack formations.  The  German  and  French  cavalry  will  be  of 
about  equal  strength  when  the  formation  of  the  already  approved 
6  new  French  regiments  shall  have  been  effected.  Conspicuously 
weak  in  numbers  is  the  cavalry  of  Italy. 


408  THE   MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE 

Cavalry  horses  in  Russia,  Germany,  and  Austria-Hungary  are  of 
greatly  superior  quality  to  those  of  France  and  Italy. 

The  total  cavalry  strength  in  the  spring  of  1891  was,  in  Ger- 
many, 10  regiments  of  cuirassiers,  4  of  heavy  horse  (2  each  in  Sax- 
ony and  Bavaria),  25  of  uhlans,  20  of  hussars,  28  of  dragoons,  and  6 
of  chevaux-legers  in  ^Ravaria,  identical  with  dragoons — total,  93 
regiments  of  5  squadrons  each  ;  total  number  of  squadrons,  465  ; 
the  cuirass  no  longer  belongs  to  the  field  equipment,  but  is  merely 
worn  for  parade.  In  Austria-Hungary,  15  regiments  of  dragoons, 
16  of  hussars,  and  11  of  uhlans — total,  42  regiments  of  6  squad- 
rons and  1  depot  cadre  each;  whole  number  of  squadrons,  252. 
In  Italy,  10  regiments  of  lancieri  (uhlans)  and  14  of  cavallegieri 
(dragoons),  with  consecutive  numbers  from  1  to  24,  each  regi- 
ment having  six  squadrons;  whole  number  of  squadrons,  144.  In 
France,  12  regiments  of  cuirassiers,  30  of  dragoons  (the  30th  being 
formed  April  1,  1891),  21  of  chasseurs-a-cheval,  12  of  hussars,  6 
of  chasseurs  d'  Afrique,  4  of  spahis ;  each  regiment  has  5  esca- 
drons,  3  of  the  spahi  regiments  6  each — total  number  of  squad- 
rons, 428.  In  Russia,  4  regiments  of  cuirassiers,  2  of  uhlans,  2 
of  dragoons  (guards),  2  of  hussars,  46  of  army  dragoons,  and  49^ 
of  Cossacks — in  war  the  number  of  the  latter  amounts  to  145 
regiments. 

The  army  dragoons,  6  guard  and  40  Cossack  regiments  are 
formed  in  6  squadrons  (or  Ssotmies,  as  they  are  called  by  the 
Cossacks),  the  4  cuirassiers  of  the  guards  in  4  squadrons — total 
number  of  squadrons  in  peace,  687, 

The  cavalry  is  that  arm  among  all  others  which  cannot  be  im- 
provised, and  the  mobilization  of  which  must  be  effected  within 
the  shortest  time.  It  requires,  therefore,  also  in  peace  an  organi- 
zation which  permits  its  employment  against  the  enemy  at  a  mo- 
ment's notice.  For  this  reason  the  German  and  French  regiments 
take  the  field  with  but  4  squadrons  each ;  one  squadron  is  left  at 
home  for  depot  purposes,  which  is  designated  in  Germany  by  an- 
nual turn,  while  in  France  it  is  without  exception  No.  5,  to  which 
are  turned  over  in  peace  all  disabled  men  and  horses. 

In  Austria-Hungary  and  Italy  each  regiment  has  a  supplementa- 
ry (Ersatz)  cadre,  which  is  enlarged  at  mobilization  to  a  depot 
squadron.     The  regiments  therefore  mobilize  with  6  squadrons. 

Russia  has  18  cadres  of  supplementary  cavalry,  each  divided 
into  3  or  4  sections,  and  forming  8  brigades.  The  sections  cor- 
respond with  the  regular  regiments  of  the  cavalry  divisions,  and 
represent  their  depot  squadrons.     In  peace  the  depot  sections  also 


THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE  409 

are  training  the  young  horses  for  the  active  regiments.     The  Cos- 
sack regiments  have  no  Ersatz  cadres. 

III. — ARTILLERY 

The  third  of  the  chief  arms,  the  artillery,  has  of  late  gained 
considerably  in  importance,  a  fact  generally  recognized  by  increas- 
ing the  number  of  batteries  and  by  essential  changes  made  in  the 
organization. 

Yet  there  is  a  wide  difference  of  opinion  entertained  in  the  sev- 
eral armies  as  to  the  leading  regulations  and  the  provisions  for  the 
strength  of  the  artillery,  calibre  and  number  of  the  guns  of  the  bat- 
teries, their  assignment  to  larger  bodies  of  troops,  etc.,  in  war  as 
well  as  in  peace.  Only  in  one  principle  a  uniformity  rule  is  ac- 
knowledged, namely,  that  the  field  artillery  enters  the  fight  as  early 
as  possible,  and  en  masse,  under  one  command.  The  requirements 
as  to  manoeuvring  facilities  and  firing  speed  of  the  batteries 
have  been  considerably  increased. 

In  Germany  alone  complete  uniformity  in  the  guns  of  the  field 
artillery  has  been  attained  since  the  introduction  of  the  8.8  centi- 
metre field-gun  in  the  horse-artillery ;  all  other  powers  still  retain 
two  calibres.  An  average  of  3  or  4  field-guns  to  every  1,000  men 
of  the  several  arms  is  generally  considered  sufficient.  The  num- 
ber of  mounted  guns  of  the  mobile  battery  is  6  in  Germany,  Italy, 
and  France,  8  in  Austria  and  Russia.  Horse-batteries  are  chiefly 
assigned  to  cavalry  divisions — in  Germany  and  France  also  to  the 
corps  artillery. 

In  Russia  alone  the  entire  artillery  of  an  army  corps  is  at  mo- 
bilization assigned  to  the  divisions,  no  corps  artillery  being  re- 
served and  put  at  the  disposal  of  the  general  commanding,  as  in 
other  countries.  According  to  present  organization,  the  number 
of  field-guns  assigned  to  an  infantry  division  is  48  in  Russia,  36 
in  Germany  and  France,  24  in  Austria  and  Italy,  while  the  strength 
of  corps  artilleries  varies  between  6  and  8  batteries.  For  opera- 
tions in  mountain  regions  every  nation  except  Germany  maintains 
separate  Alpine  artilleries,  Austria  having  for  this  purpose  so-called 
narrow-gauge  field  batteries. 

In  view  of  the  perfection  of  the  system  of  fortifications  and  the 
necessity  of  carrying  heavy  guns  also  in  the  field,  the  strength  of 
the  garrison  or  foot  artillery  and  the  number  and  quality  of  gar- 
rison and  siege  guns  has  likewise  been  considerably  increased. 
In  the  German  foot  artillery  alone  the  number  of  tactical  unities 


410  THE   MILITARY   SITUATION   IN  EUROPE 

has  not  been  increased  for  some  time,  while  Russia  has  formed  3 
field-raortar  regiments  to  serve  as  light  siege  artillery,  and  Austria- 
Hungary  has  reorganized  her  formerly  independent  battalions  in 
regimental  formation,  at  the  same  time  forming  12  new  companies. 
On  the  first  day  of  April,  1891,  the  artillery  strength  of  the 
Great  Powers  was  as  follows : 

Field  artillery  Garrison  (foot)  artillery 

Germany 434  batteries  (including  46  horse-batteries)  124  companies 

France. 480         "  "         57      "  "  100 

Austria-Hungary  260         "  "  16       "  "  72         " 

Russia .".405         "  "         49      "  "  209 

Italy 208         "  "  6      "  "  68         " 

IV. TECHNICAL    TROOPS 

The  technical  troops  consist  of  the  pioneer,  pontonier,  engineer, 
telegraph,  and  railway  troops,  to  which  have  been  added  recently 
the  organizations  formed  for  the  signal  and  observation  service. 
Infantry  and  cavalry,  however,  must  also  be  able  to  perform  in  a 
measure  the  work  of  technical  troops,  such  as  fortifying  positions 
in  an  open  country  and  interrupting  railway  and  telegraphic  lines. 
Spade  and  pickaxe  are  at  present  considered  of  great  importance, 
which  fact  is  generally  recognized ;  and  reckoning  with  it,  the  in- 
fantry is  being  equipped  with  portable  apparatus  for  throwing  up 
breastworks,  and  the  cavalry  with  appropriate  material — tools  and 
dynamite  cartridges — for  the  destruction  of  communication  lines 
of  every  kind.  The  artillery  is  likewise  required  to  throw  up 
their  own  works  for  protecting  the  guns. 

The  performance  of  the  work  mentioned  above,  as  also  the  con- 
struction of  passages  across  smaller  watercourses,  is  the  duty  of 
the  field  pioneers,  while  the  solution  of  larger  technical  problems, 
especially  in  a  siege  campaign,  devolves  upon  the  technical  troops, 
whose  functions  also  extend  to  the  aerial  navigation,  carrier-pig- 
eons, and  telegraph  service. 

It  may  be  mentioned  that,  in  conformity  with  an  old  tradition, 
the  French  pontoniers  belong  to  the  artillery  ;  that  in  France 
and  Russia  separate  train  divisions  for  mounting  wagons  form 
part  of  the  engineer  troops — certainly  an  advantageous  institution  ; 
and  that  in  Russia,  Austria,  and  Italy  the  organization  of  telegraph 
troops  is  being  attended  to  in  time  of  peace,  while  in  Germany 
and  France  such  troops  are  formed  only  in  case  of  mobilization 
from  State  telegraph  officials  who  are  liable  to  service. 


THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE  411 

While  Germany  has  a  separate  aeronautic  division,  in  France 
one  company  of  every  engineer  regiment  is  trained  in  aeronautic 
exercises.  Carrier-pigeon  stations  are  being  maintained  by  every 
country  at  the  more  important  points  on  the  frontier  for  the  pur- 
pose of  keeping  up  outside  communications  in  case  of  an  enclose- 
ment. 

In  Germany  alone  pioneers  and  pontoniers  are  joined  in  battal- 
ion formation,  while  the  other  powers  keep  up  separate  organiza- 
tions. Russia  has  added  to  her  technical  troops  torpedo  compa- 
nies for  the  defence  of  the  ports  of  the  Black  and  Baltic  seas. 

Railway  troops  require,  besides  their  military  and  technical 
drill,  special  instruction  in  the  operation  and  building  of  railway 
lines.  In  all  countries,  therefore,  certain  railroad  lines  are  set 
aside,  which  are  conducted  and  operated  either  entirely  or  in  part 
by  railway  troops.  The  most  perfect  system  of  this  kind  exists 
in  Germany. 

The  strength  of  the  technical  troops  in  peace  time  is : 

Germany :  20  pioneer  battalions,  1  railway  brigade  of  2  regiments 
of  2  battalions  each,  1  Bavarian  railway  battalion  of  2  companies, 
and  1  aeronautic  division. 

Austria-Hungary  :  2  engineer  regiments  (10  field  battalions),  1 
pioneer  regiment  (for  bridge-building),  1  railway  and  telegraph 
regiment  of  3  battalions,  and  several  reserve  and  depot  formations 
for  the  regiments  named. 

Russia  :  17-^  battalions  of  sappers,  6  railway  and  8  pontonier  bat- 
talions, 4  torpedo  companies,  and  1 7  telegraph  parks.  The  rail- 
way battalions  numbered  2  to  4  form  a  brigade ;  2  serve  on  the 
Trans-Caspian  lines,  while  the  1st  does  duty  on  the  Petersburg- 
Gatschin  road. 

France:  4  engineer  regiments  of  19  battalions,  1  railway  regi- 
ment of  3  battalions,  and  2  pontonier  regiments  of  28  companies. 
Each  engineer  regiment  has  permanently  assigned  to  it  a  train 
company. 

Italy :  4  engineer  regiments  with  43  sapper,  8  pontonier,  6  tel- 
egraph, 2  lagune  (lake),  and  4  railway  companies.  In  the  3d  reg- 
iment is  included  1  company  of  experts  in  the  signal,  aeronautic, 
and  carrier-pigeon  service.  Ten  train  companies  are  assigned  to 
these  regiments. 


412  THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE 


V. HIGHER    TACTICAL    FORMATIONS 

The  composition  of  higher  tactical  formations,  made  up  of  the 
different  kinds  of  arms,  varies  in  many  ways  in  the  several  armies ; 
yet  throughout  the  division  is  considered  as  the  fighting  unity, 
and  the  army  corps,  owing  to  its  permanent  composition,  as  best 
qualified  for  independent  operation. 

In  time  of  peace  the  divisions  generally  consist  of  troops  of  but 
one  species  of  arms,  except  in  Germany,  where  1  cavalry  brigade 
is  attached  to  the  divisions,  besides  the  4  infantry  regiments, 
which  are  fornjed  in  2  brigades.  The  question  of  assigning  them 
also  field  artillery  is  at  present  under  consideration,  but  not  yet 
finally  decided.  The  Prussian  Guard  Corps  is  organized  different- 
ly, in  so  far  as  its  8  cavalry  regiments  form  an  independent  divi- 
sion. In  the  armies  of  the  other  countries  the  infantry  divisions 
are  likewise  divided  into  2  brigades  with  4  regiments.  The  cav- 
alry regiments  are  joined  in  brigades,  Avhich  are  either  assigned  to 
army  corps  or  formed  as  separate  divisions.  Russia  has  to  each 
army  corps  stationed  in  Europe  1  cavalry  division,  while  France 
has  6  so-called  independent  cavalry  divisions,  with  horse-batteries 
attached  to  them  also  in  time  of  peace.  The  field  artillery  is  at 
present  everywhere  joined  to  the  army  corps,  while  with  the  tech- 
nical troops  this  is  the  case  only  in  a  territorial  respect. 

The  regular  formation  of  the  German  army  corps  is:  2  divisions 
and  1  artillery  brigade  (the  guard  corps  consisting  of  2  divisions 
and  1  cavalry  division,  the  11th,  12th,  and  2d  Bavarian  corps  of 
3  divisions  each). 

The  French  army  corps  :  2  infantry  divisions,  1  corps  cavalry 
brigade,  1  artillery  brigade. 

The  Austria-Hungarian  :  2  infantry  troop  divisions  (the  2d  army 
corps  in  Vienna  having  3),  1  cavalry  brigade  or  cavalry  troop  di- 
vision, 1  artillery  brigade  with  the  corps  artillery  regiment,  and  2 
battery  divisions. 

The  Italian  :  2  infantry  divisions  and,  as  a  rule,  1  cavalry  and  1 
artillery  brigade. 

The  Russian  :  2  infantry  divisions,  1  cavalry  division,  and  2  ar- 
tillery brigades  numbered  after  the  former. 

It  is  an  important  point  that  organization  and  formation  of  army 
corps  should  require  the  least  possible  changes  when  being  trans- 
formed from  peace  to  war  footing.  These  changes  extend  to  per- 
manent   assignment    of  artillery  to   the  divisions  (which  is  not 


THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE  413 

necessary  in  Russia);  to  formation  of  a  corps  artillery  ;  to  organ- 
ization of  military  trains  and  columns  for  the  purpose  of  supply- 
ing ammunition  and  provisions,  as  well  as  for  the  sanitary  service ; 
in  Germany  and  Italy,  also,  to  the  formation  of  cavalry  divisions. 

According  to  press  reports  a  very  remarkable  change  seems  to 
be  proposed  in  France,  whereby  in  case  of  mobilization  each  infant- 
ry brigade  shall  be  enlarged  by  a  third  infantry  regiment,  known 
as  regiment  mixte,  and  formed  by  the  officers  of  the  cadres  comple- 
mentaires,  the  officers  of  the  reserve,  and  the  youngest  annual 
classes  of  the  territorial  army. 

The  regular  composition  of  the  division  on  war  footing  is  shown 
in  the  following  table,  in  which,  however,  the  jager  battalions  are 
not  taken  into  consideration,  as  their  insertion  in  the  ordre  de  bat- 
taille  is  regulated  everywhere  by  particular  provisions  : 


INFANTRY 

CAVALRY 

ARTILLERY 

PIONEER 

Germany 

Austria    

Brigiides 

2 

2 

Res;iment3 

4 

4 
4 
6 
4 

Battalions      Squadrons 

12             4 
1215           4 
12      indefinite 
18 
16 

Batteries 

6 
3 
4 
6 
6 

Gun  a 

36 
24 
24 

36 
18 

Companies 

1  01-2 
1 

Italy  

France  

2 

2 

1 
1 

Russia 

2 

The  French  and  Italian  infantry  divisions  have  only  a  temporary 
assignment  of  cavalry  according  to  demands.  The  French  army 
corps  has  at  its  disposal  1  cavalry  brigade  ;  the  Italian,  1  regiment. 
In  Russia  each  army  corps  has  a  cavalry  division  in  time  of  peace, 
but  the  intention  seems  to  be  to  keep  them  permanently  together, 
and  to  assign  to  the  divisions  Cossack  formations  to  serve  as  divis- 
ion cavalry. 

Two  divisions  of  the  above  described  composition  (battalions 
on  war  footing  numbering  1000  men,  squadrons  150  horse — per- 
haps less  in  France  and  Italy  )  form  an  army  corps,  the  fighting- 
forces  of  which  are  still  further  increased  by  the  corps  artillery,  the 
strength  of  which  is,  in  Germany,  undefined  ;  in  France,  8  batteries 
with  48  guns  ;  Austria,  6  batteries  with  48  guns  ;  Italy,  8  batteries 
with  48  guns. 

As  mentioned  already,  no  corps  artillery  is  formed  in  Russia,  the 
entire  artillery  being  distributed  among  the  divisions. 

The  peace  organization  consists,  in  Germany,  of  20  army  corps ; 
Austria-Hungary,  15;  Italy,  12;  Russia,  20;  France,  19. 

France  intends  to  put  up  a  20th  corps,  to  be  known  as  the  "  Co- 
lonial  army,"  and  formed   of  the   present    colonial    and    marine 


414  THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN   EUROPE 

troops,  subject  directly  to  the  orders  of  the  War  Minister.  Its 
24  battalions  and  from  10  to  12  mounted  batteries,  which  are  per- 
manently garrisoned  in  the  interior,  will  presumably  be  merged 
in  the  mobile  army. 

Germany's  20  army  corps  are  divided  into  5  army  inspections; 
the  army  inspectors  do  not  have  the  prerogatives  of  commanding 
officers ;  they  merely  exercise  the  right  of  inspecting  the  troops. 
Larger  authority  is  conceded  in  France  to  the  members  of  the  Su- 
preme Council  of  War,  who  act  as  inspectors  of  army  corps — during 
the  fall  mananivres  they  assume  command  of  the  corps  and  the 
cavalry  divisions  united  to  an  army,  and  may  order  a  mobilization 
of  troops  and  the  armament  of  fortifications  for  inspecting  and 
testing  purposes.  In  Russia  the  commanding  authorities  placed 
at  the  head  of  the  13  military  districts  represent  local  war  minis- 
tries, and  in  the  frontier  districts  they  exercise  at  the  same  time 
the  authority  of  chief  army  commanders  over  all  the  troops,  mili- 
tary institutions,  and  administrative  bodies  within  the  district. 
The  commanders-in-chief  of  the  military  districts  of  Warsaw,  Fin- 
land, the  Caucasus,  and  the  five  Asiatic  districts  of  Russia  are  at 
the  same  time  governors-general,  uniting  therefore  in  their  person 
the  highest  military  and  civic  authority  of  the  district. 

Aside  from  the  parts  of  the  standing  army  put  on  war  footing, 
there  will  be  organized  in  every  country  in  case  of  war  reserve, 
garrison  and  depot  foi-mations,  destined  either  to  support  the  army 
or  to  serve  garrison  or  depot  purposes.  Russia  is  the  only  coun- 
try which  maintains  organized  reserve  and  garrison  troops  in  time 
of  peace ;  cadres  for  such  are  found  in  France  in  the  territorial 
array,  frequently  called  "the  army  of  the  2d  line,"  and  in  Austria- 
Hungary. 

There  are  formed,  according  to  the  army  lists,  in  France,  145 
territorial  infantry  regiments,  having  5  to  6  battalions  each,  of 
which  the  first  two  are  transferred  to  the  regiment  mixte,  144 
squadrons  of  territorial  cavalry,  18  regiments  of  territorial  artil- 
lery, with  the  necessary  engineer  and  train  divisions  ;  in  Austria- 
Hungary,  22  Landwehr  infantry  regiments,  4  Dalmation  Landwehr 
battalions,  10  battalions  Tyrolean  militia  schlitzen,  28  Honved  in- 
fantry regiments,  6  Landwehr  cavalry  regiments,  10  Honved  hussar 
regiments. 

Austria-Hungary  differs  from  other  countries  in  that  her  Land- 
wehr regiments  have  recruits  assigned  them  directly,  who  receive 
their  training  durino^  an  abridsfcd  term  of  service. 

A  component  part  of  the  armed  forces  of  Russia  is  the  frontier 


THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE  415 

guard,  and  in  France  the  organization  formed  from  custom  and 
forest  officials.  The  strength  of  the  former  amounts  to  26,000, 
of  the  latter  to  30,000  men.  The  frontier  guard  is  divided  into 
28  brigades,  eacli  being  assigned  to  a  certain  border  section  for 
the  supervision  of  traffic  and  the  prevention  of  smuggling.  The 
French  custom  and  forest  officials  are  organized  in  peace  as  bat- 
talions, companies,  and  sections,  officered  by  superior  officials. 
The  War  Ministry  furnishes  arms  and  ammunition,  and  takes  com- 
mand of  these  organizations  on  the  first  day  of  a  mobilization, 
while  their  clothing  and  equipment  are  provided  by  the  Depart- 
ment of  Finance.  Most  likely  the  above  described  formations, 
which  are  composed  of  old  soldiers,  will  at  the  outbreak  of  a  war 
be  employed  jointly  with  troops  of  the  field  army  for  guarding 
the  frontier ;  they  will  also  be  able  to  perform  efficient  service 
during  the  operations  of  a  campaign. 

C. — Armament. 

The  lead  taken  by  the  French  army  in  introducing  a  small- 
calibre  rifle  and  smokeless  powder  had  necessarily  to  be  followed 
by  the  remaining  powers.  Apart  from  improving  the  firing  qual- 
ity of  the  troops,  reasons  of  moral  considerations  require  their  be- 
ino;  fitted  out  with  the  best  of  arms. 

Five  years  of  untiring  efforts  and  assiduous  study,  commencing 
with  experiments  in  the  direction  of  realizing  the  advantages  of 
a  small- calibre  rifle  and  of  the  use  of  a  powder  producing  but 
slight  smoke,  which  had  heretofore  only  been  treated  theoretically, 
have  achieved  the  desired  results,  so  that  we  now  find  the  infan- 
tries of  the  Great  Powers,  Russia  alone  excepted,  equipped  with 
small  calibre  rifies  with  multiplied  loading  capacity,  which  may  dif- 
fer in  construction,  but  are  all  considered  thoroughly  reliable  for  a 
campaign.  One  fact  may  be  stated  right  here.  Arms  with  tubu- 
lar magazine  (either  in  the  butt  end  or  in  the  foreshaft  of  the 
rifle)  appear  already  obsolete,  and  are  superseded  by  rifles  with 
box  magazine  for  cartridge  pack-filling,  which,  besides  other  advan- 
tages, render  unnecessary  the  tedious  filling  of  the  single  maga- 
zines, especially  disadvantageous  in  a  fight,  owing  to  the  loss  of 
time.  The  cartridges  are  placed  from  four  to  six  pieces  in  a  frame 
packed  above  one  another.  In  order  to  fill  the  magazine,  such 
a  frame  is  taken  from  the  cartridge-pouch  and  placed  in  the 
magazine-box,  whereupon  the  frame  is  pulled  out  or  automatically 
removed  from  the  box. 


416  THE   MILITARY  SITUATION  IN  EUROPE 

In  Germany  the  rifle  question  was  settled  by  the  introduction 
of  "rifle  88"  (7.9  mm.  calibre),  with  box  mao-azine  for  cartridge 
pack-filling,  the  range  of  which  at  increased  firing  and  hitting 
efliciency  is  stated  to  be  3800  m. 

The  French  infantry  rifle,  model  of  1886  (Lebel  rifle),  belongs 
to  the  tubular  magazine  species,  and  is,  even  in  France,  no  longer 
considered  up  to  the  requirements  of  the  times,  while  in  Italy  the 
rifles  of  model  1871  (Vetterli  system)  are  being  changed  at  pres- 
ent into  cylinder  magazine  rifles  as  proposed  by  Captain  Vitali. 
It  is  said  that  350,000  rifles  of  this  kind  have  already  been  manu- 
factured. In  Austria-Hungary,  also,  rapid  advance  is  made  in  the 
new  armament  with  "  rifle  88  "  (Manlicher  system,  box  magazine). 
England  has  chosen  in  place  of  the  Martini  -  Henry  rifle,  model 
1871,  of  11.43  mm.  calibre,  a  rapid-firing  arm  of  smallest  calibre 
— 7.65  mm.  with  box  magazine,  Lee  model. 

In  Russia  the  question  of  newly  arming  the  infantry  has  been 
only  very  recently  decided.  A  small- calibre  (7.63  mm.)  repeat- 
ing rifle  has  been  adopted,  and  is  now  being  manufactured  in 
masses.  But  even  with  the  greatest  practicable  haste,  the  new 
armament  of  the  Russian  infantry  will  not  be  completed  before 
two  or  three  years. 

In  order  to  realize  the  full  advantage  of  the  new  arm,  an  explosive 
is  required  which  will  give  the  projectile  a  starting  speed  (that  is 
the  distance  covered  by  the  bullet  within  one  second  after  leaving 
the  muzzle  of  the  rifle)  of  about  600  m. ;  it  must  furthermore  gen- 
erate as  little  smoke  as  possible,  and  prove  its  usefulness  for  a 
campaign  by  durability  in  climatic  changes,  and  by  being  easily 
transported.  Thorough  experimental  efforts  have  succeeded  at 
last  in  producing  a  so-called  smokeless  powder,  or  more  correctly 
speaking,  a  powder  emitting  little  smoke,  which  develops  more 
gases,  and  consequently  more  vigor  and  less  smoke  than  the  pow- 
der heretofore  in  use. 

Owing  to  these  qualities  the  new  powder  will  unquestionably 
have  a  decided  influence  on  the  tactics  of  the  battle-field,  which, 
although  carefully  considered  and  estimated,  cannot  be  determined 
upon  until  after  the  practical  experience  of  a  campaign.  The  con- 
duct of  the  fight,  the  observation  of  the  enemy's  position,  the  cal- 
culation of  distances,  and  the  notice  of  the  firing  effect  will  un- 
doubtedly  be  made  more  difficult,  and  the  martial  training  of  the 
troops  will  in  future  be  of  still  higher  importance  than  heretofore. 

A  certain  uniformity  in  the  armament  of  the  infantry  has  been 
attained,  or  is,  at  least,  being  attempted,  by  all  the  Great  Powers  of 


THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE  417 

Europe.  There  still  remain  differences  as  to  its  construction  and 
manipulation,  but  the  firing  efficiency  of  the  new  rifles  is  essen- 
tially the  same  in  all  the  systems  described  above. 

Thorough-going  experiments  made  in  the  several  countries  to 
test  the  effect  of  the  lately  introduced  small -calibre  projectiles 
have  proved  the  noticeable  fact  that  by  the  reduction  of  the  cali- 
bre, and  particularly  by  the  general  adoption  of  covered  projectiles, 
humane  tendencies  are  promoted,  as  in  future  wars  shot  wounds 
will  be  cleaner  and  smoother,  their  healing  process  more  favorable, 
and  cripples  less  numerous  than  heretofore ;  the  new  infantry 
gun  will,  therefore,  prove  not  only  the  best,  but  the  most  humane 
arm. 

A  uniform  armament  of  the  cavalry  of  the  Great  Powers  does 
not  exist.  The  German  cavalry  alone  is  equipped  throughout 
with  lances ;  in  France  so  far  only  the  first  echelon  of  the  dragoon 
regiments  use  this  weapon,  which,  however,  according  to  latest 
reports,  is  not  to  be  taken  along  in  the  field ;  in  Russia  only  the 
guards  and  some  Cossack  regiments  are  provided  with  the  lance. 
In  Austria-Hungary  it  is  entirely  abolished,  while  in  Italy  it  is  still 
carried  by  a  portion  of  the  cavalry. 

The  question  whether  a  uniformly  equipped  cavalry  shall  be 
provided  with  both  sword  and  lance,  has  in  Germany  alone  been 
decided  in  favor  of  the  lance.  The  advantages  of  a  lance  for  an 
attack,  especially  against  infantry,  are  no  more  questioned  than 
the  necessity  of  equipping  the  cavalry  with  a  suitable  fire-arm. 
The  latter  is  done  everywhere.  In  Russia  the  rifle  appears  to 
have  even  superseded  the  sword  in  the  equipment  of  the  cavalry, 
to  whose  training  for  foot  combat  and  individual  firing  readiness 
more  importance  is  conceded  than  should  seem  wise.  Indeed, 
the  bulk  of  the  cavalry  has  been  transformed  into  mounted  infan- 
try, the  efficiency  of  which  remains  yet  to  be  tested. 

The  artilleries  of  the  Great  Powers  may  be  considered  as  of 
equal  standard  of  quality  and  efficient  material.  For  the  guns, 
also,  the  smokeless  powder  has  already  been,  or  is  being,  adopted. 

Every  country  strives  restlessly  to  attain  the  highest  possible 
degree  of  perfection  in  armament,  and  though  this  contention 
seems  to  be  going  on  continually,  there  are,  for  the  nearest  fut- 
ure, at  least,  no  thorough-going  changes  to  be  expected  which  re- 
quire time  and  money,  save  that  France  may  introduce  in  place 
of  the  Lebel  gun  a  rifle  model  after  the  system  of  cartridge  pack- 
filling. 


418  THE   MILITARY   SITUATION   IN  EUROPE 


D. — Some    other    Factors    of    Judging    the    Military    Effi- 
ciency OF  A  Country 

Besides  the  fundamental  provisions  for  liability  to  service,  or- 
ganization, and  armament  of  armies,  there  are  other  factors  to  be 
considered  which  influence  the  military  efficiency  of  a  country. 
Among  these  are  the  extent  and  form  of  the  railroad  system  ;  the 
fortification  of  the  country ;  the  conditions  and  movements  of  the 
population  ;  the  public  finances ;  the  number  of  men  kept  under 
arms  in  peace ;  the  distribution  and  war  strength  of  the  armies. 

It  is  a  generally  recognized  fact  that  an  extensive  and  widely- 
branched  railroad  system  facilitates  in  a  great  measure  the  mobili- 
zation and  the  transport  of  the  troops  into  their  positions  on  the 
frontier,  and  is  consequently  of  paramount  importance  for  the 
defence  of,  or  display  of  power  by,  a  country.  The  military 
administrations  and  army  commands  of  all  Great  Powers  are, 
therefore,  allowed  in  peace  to  exercise  great  influence  on  the 
formation  of  the  railroad  system  and  its  equipment  with  rolling 
stock  for  the  transportation  of  troops,  and  from  the  moment  of 
mobilizing  the  entire  I'ailroad  management  passes  under  military 
control.  All  preparations  for  the  transport  of  troops  and  ma- 
terial must  be  made  in  peace,  and  nowhere  the  error  committed 
by  France  before  the  outbreak  of  the  war  of  1870-Vl  will  be  re- 
peated to-day,  namely,  to  indulge  in  the  illusion  that  the  concen- 
tration of  armies  on  the  frontier  could  be  effected  with  order  and 
precision  without  thorough  and  extensive  preparations  in  peace. 

We  find,  therefore,  in  all  armies  special  central  bodies  which, 
under  the  direction  of  the  General  Staff,  have  to  attend  to  these 
pi'eparations.  They  are  known  as  line  commissions  in  Germany 
and  France,  representing  not  only  the  military,  but  also  perma- 
nently the  mechanical  element;  station  or  line  commands  in  Italy 
and  Austria-Hungary  ;  troop  transportation  authorities  in  Russia. 

In  all  countries,  but  particularly  in  France  and  Russia,  military 
considerations  have  been  paramount  in  laying  out  new  railroad 
lines,  and  in  the  first  named  country  pains  have  been  taken  in 
completing  and  multiplying  the  railway  net.  Instead  of  three,  as 
at  the  commencement  of  the  campaign  of  1870,  there  are  now  ten 
lines  leading  from  the  interior  to  the  eastern  frontier,  almost  all 
double  track,  operated  independently  of  each  other  and  con- 
nected by  numerous  cross  lines;  within  IV  years  the  number  of 
miles  of  rails  has  been  doubled,  and  it  requires  but  the  fifth  part 


THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE  419 

of  tlie  entire  rolling  stock  to  transport  at  once  the  wliole  army  to 
the  frontier.  Russia,  also,  has  paid  due  attention  to  the  extension 
of  her  railroad  system ;  yet  it  does  not  command  over  more  than 
five  railroad  lines  leading  from  the  heart  of  the  country  to  the 
west  and  south-west  frontier,  while  Germany  possesses  ten  (after 
the  completion  of  her  eastern  railway  system,  even  thirteen)  lines, 
which  come  into  consideration  in  case  of  displaying  the  army  in 
the  East.  Hence  tlie  strategic  railroad  system  of  Germany  is  ad- 
mirably developed  against  her  eastern  neighbor. 

Remarkable  changes  have  also  been  made  within  the  last  two 
decades  in  the  manner  of  fortifying  the  country.  In  this  con- 
nection there  had  to  be  considered  first,  the  adoption  and  real- 
ization of  new  fundamental  principles  of  the  fortification  system ; 
secondly,  the  strengthening  of  already  existing  fortifications  in 
order  to  render  them  capable  of  resistance  against  the  effects  of 
modern  artillery.  But  while  in  Germany  and  Austria  a  limited 
number  of  fortified  places  of  the  first  rank  are  deemed  suflicient, 
France  has  extended  her  fortification  system  almost  beyond  the 
limit  of  absolute  necessity.  Her  experiences  during  the  late  war 
— twenty-seven  fortified  places  were  taken  by  the  Germans  after 
a  short  siege,  eleven  of  which  had  to  be  ceded  at  the  close  of  the 
war — and  the  conviction  that  she  must  strengthen  her  eastern 
frontier  by  new  forts,  has  led  to  a  complete  reorganization  of  the 
fortification  system,  the  leading  feature  of  which  is  the  establish- 
ment of  two  great  lines  of  defence  along  the  eastern  frontier  and 
of  a  central  position. 

A  new  element  in  the  defence  of  a  country  has  been  added  by 
the  erection  of  blockade  forts — independent  works,  the  armament 
and  garrison  of  which  do  not  exceed  100  guns  and  1000  men — 
for  the  purpose  of  defending  and  blockading  the  most  important 
railway  lines  and  highways,  and  of  establishing  connections  be- 
tween the  large  forts. 

The  front  line  of  defence  against  Germany  is  formed  by  the 
great  armed  places  of  Verdun,  Toul,  Epinal,  and  Belfort ;  the 
second  by  Reims,  Laon,  La  Fere,  Besancon,  and  Dijon — all  for- 
tresses with  far  advanced  detached  forts.  Of  the  numerous 
places  along  the  Sambre  and  Meuse  rivers,  only  Maubeuge  can  lay 
claim  to  some  importance.  Against  Italy,  likewise,  a  new  frontier 
defence  has  been  established  by  the  erection  of  blockade  forts  at 
all  Alpine  passes,  and  by  the  fortified  camps  of  Grenoble  and 
BrianQon,  also  by  rebuilding  and  enlarging  the  fortifications  of 
Lyons. 


420  THE   MILITARY    SITUATION  IN  EUROPE 

In  the  third  line  in  the  rear  of  the  eastern  forts  is  Paris — rightly 
called  a  fortified  province — surrounded  by  a  double  belt  of  forts, 
the  outer  works  of  which  cover  an  area  of  about  twenty -nine 
geographical  square  miles,  encircling  a  population  of  more  than 
3,000,000,  and  comprising  the  three  large  fortified  camps  of  the 
north,  the  east,  and  south-east.  In  order  to  prevent  a  repetition 
of  the  siege  and  bombardment  of  Paris  in  1870-71,  the  fortifica- 
tion lines  have  been  extended  in  a  measure  defying  any  compari- 
son. It  is  at  present  intended  to  tear  down  the  city  walls,  which 
impede  the  development  of  the  interior  city,  and  have  lost  their 
military  importance. 

Next  to  France,  Russia  has  recently  made  great  efforts  in  the 
direction  of  fortifying  herself.  In  the  military  districts  of  War- 
saw and  Wilna,  being  nearest  to  the  German  frontier,  the  forts  of 
Kowno,  Warsaw,  Nowogeorgiewo,  and  Beest-Litowsk  have  been 
made  armed  places  of  the  first  rank,  and  a  line  of  blockade  forts 
connecting  with  Kowno  in  the  north,  and  stretching  down  south 
to  Onita  on  the  Niemen  River,  is  in  the  course  of  erection.  All 
fortifications  in  the  districts  mentioned  are  up  to  the  standard  of 
modern  times. 

About  the  merit  of  fortifications  and  their  indispensability  for 
the  defence  of  a  country  as  well  as  for  a  campaign,  opinions  of  the 
best  authorities  differ ;  but  the  one  fact  is  uncontrovertible  that 
the  initial  operations  of  any  future  campaign  will  be  directed 
against  the  great  armed  places,  and  only  after  their  surrender  the 
field  campaign  will  commence. 

The  military  efficiency  of  a  country  is  influenced  furthermore  by 
the  strength  of  her  population,  especially  the  number  of  young 
men  liable  to  service.  Census  statistics  show  that  the  population 
of  Germany  has,  during  the  five  years  beginning  December  1,  1885, 
increased  5.7  per  cent.,  which  is  not  surpassed  by  any  other  coun- 
try. The  increase  in  Italy  is  4  per  cent.;  in  Austria-Hungary  2.5 
per  cent.;  in  France  but  1.6  per  cent.  The  proportion  of  young 
men  liable  to  service  is,  however,  larger  in  France  than  in  other 
countries,  a  fact  which  is  noticeable  not  merely  from  a  military 
point  of  view,  but  also  in  regard  to  its  economical  relations. 

The  amount  of  money  appropriated  by  the  European  Great 
Powers  for  the  maintenance  and  improvement  of  their  military 
forces,  including  the  navy,  is  without  exception  increasing  from 
year  to  year,  and  may  be  estimated  approximately  at  an  aggregate 
of  four  milliards  of  marks.  The  army  appropriations  of  France 
and   Russia  are  highest,  the  former  amounting  in  1890  to   710,- 


THE   MILITARY   SITUATION   IN   EUROPE  421 

000,000  francs,  the  latter  to  226,000,000  rubles.  For  the  mainte- 
nance of  the  German  army  for  the  year  beginning  April  1,  1891, 
405,250,000  marks  have  been  set  out  in  the  imperial  budget. 
Austria-Hungary  expended  in  1890  for  the  same  purpose  156,000,- 
000  florins;  Italy  278,500,000  lires ;  the  British  army  requires 
300,000,000  marks  annually,  including  the  land  troops  in  all 
colonies  save  India,  and  not  including  pensions,  which  in  England 
are  provided  for  in  the  army  budget. 

Yielding  to  parliamentary  demand,  the  new  Italian  Ministry  of 
Rudini  has  declared  its  readiness  to  making  deductions  in  the 
army  budget  to  the  amount  of  10,500,000  lires,  but  it  is  question- 
able whether  such  a  reduction  is  feasible  without  seriously  injur- 
ing the  militant  interests  of  the  country. 

In  the  ligures  quoted  above  are  included  both  the  permanent 
and  annual  expenses  known  in  France  as  "  service  ordinaire  "  and 
"  service  extraordinaire." 

Comparative  statistics  of  interest  are  found  in  a  tax  report  of 
1886,  which,  although  dating  back  some  years,  may  still  be  con- 
sidered approximately  correct  in  view  of  the  general  and  equal 
increase  of  both  public  revenues  and  army  appropriations.  Ac- 
cording to  this  report  there  were  expended  of  the  annual  revenues 
for  army  purposes  in  Germany,  19.2  per  cent.;  Austria-Hungary, 
15.5  ;  Russia,  35  ;  France,  31 ;  while  of  the  Government  expenses, 
after  deducting  the  amounts  paid  for  interest  on  the  public  debt, 
the  share  allotted  to  the  army  was,  1885-86,  26.04  per  cent,  in 
Prussia  (the  Prussian  contingent  of  the  imperial  army  as  com- 
pared with  the  expenses  of  the  State  of  Prussia);  France,  1886, 
40.46  ;  Russia,  1886,  40.00. 

An  exact  enumeration  of  the  war  strength  of  the  armies  of  the 
Great  Powers  cannot  be  given  in  this  place  ;  depending  upon  the 
number  of  officers,  non-commissioned  officers,  and  men  serving  in 
the  standing  army,  and  upon  the  strength  of  the  annual  contin- 
gents, it  is  as  steadily  and  constantly  increasing  as  the  peace 
strength.  It  may  be  stated,  however,  that  taking  as  a  basis  the 
number  of  combatants,  the  States  mentioned  above  rank  as  fol- 
lows: France,  Russia,  Germany,  Austria- Hungary,  and  Italy.  In 
this  respect  Great  Britain  takes  the  last  place  among  the  Great 
Powers. 


422  THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE 


A. — The  Armies  of  the  Balkan  States 

I. TURKEY 

Turkey  can  put  in  the  field  a  numerous  military  force,  and  her 
armies  have  fought  at  all  times  with  great  bravery,  although  often 
provided  in  the  worst  possible  manner  with  provisions,  equipment, 
and  armament.  Owing  to  the  almost  perpetual  financial  troubles  of 
this  country,  the  dues  of  officers  and  men  are  paid  very  irregu- 
larly. This  is  demonstrated  by  the  issuance,  in  1888,  of  an  order 
which  is  still  in  force,  to  the  effect  that  arrearages  due  soldiers  at 
the  time  of  their  discharge  for  which  no  money  is  in  the  treasury 
shall  instead  be  paid  in  scrip,  which  may  be  applied  to  the  pay- 
ment of  State  and  municipal  taxes. 

Enlisted  in  the  army,  with  the  sole  exception  of  one  single  cav- 
alry regiment,  are  only  orthodox  Mohammedans  or  Mussulmans; 
the  Christian  population  is  excluded  from  army  service  in  consid- 
eration of  the  payment  of  a  military  tax.  Religion,  indeed,  is 
still  the  one  main  element  of  strength  of  the  Turkish  army. 

The  latter  has  been  reorganized  after  every  war,  and  there  re- 
main at  present  German  officers  in  Constantinople  to  introduce 
once  more  some  thorough-going  reforms.  It  must  be  admitted, 
however,  that  the  exuberant  expectations  set  by  many  on  the 
work  of  these  officers  have  not  been  realized,  although  their  efforts 
have  achieved  some  success.  All  sorts  of  intrigues  and  an  exceed- 
ingly cumbrous  routine  have  paralyzed  the  efforts  of  the  authori- 
ties conducting  the  reorganization  of  the  army ;  even  changes 
sanctioned  by  the  Sultan  himself  are  not  put  into  effect. 

The  Moslem  part  of  the  population  of  Turkey  is  liable  to  serv- 
ice from  the  20th  to  the  40th  year.  The  term  of  service  in  the 
active  army,  which,  however,  is  always  being  greatly  abridged,  is 
6,  the  Landwehr  liability  6,  and  the  Landsturm  liability  8  years. 
Those  discharged  from  active  service  remain  in  the  reserve  until 
they  enter  the  Landwehr ;  the  reserve  may  be  called  out  at  any 
time.  The  inhabitants  of  Constantinople  are  exempt  from  military 
duty,  which  privilege  ceases  with  their  change  of  residence; 
neither  does  it  extend  to  those  Moslems  liable  to  service  who  settle 
in  the  capital  with  the  intention  to  reside  there  permanently. 

The  Turkish  empire  is  divided  into  6  military  districts  called 
"  ordu  ;"  in  each  district  8  infantry  brigades  (with  2  regiments  and 
4  battalions  each)  should  have  been  formed,  but  the  entire  infantry 


THE  MILITARY  SITUATION  IN  EUROPE  423 

in  the  beginning  of  1891  actually  numbered  but  68  regiments,  15 
jager  battalions,  2  zouave  regiments,  and  1  battalion  mounted  in- 
fantry. The  cavalry  consisted  of  39  regiments  of  5  escadrons 
each;  the  field  artillery  of  13  regiments  with  144  foot,  18  horse, 
and  36  mountain  batteries.  There  were,  besides,  6  fort  artillery,  6 
engineer,  and  5  train  battalions. 

In  1889,43,000  recruits  were  enlisted;  the  peace  strength 
amounts  to  185,000  combatants,  to  whom  are  to  be  added  65,000 
non-combatants  (mechanics,  administrative  troops,  officials,  etc.), 
so  that  250,000  men  have  to  be  provided  for. 

Much  has  been  done  of  late  in  the  way  of  selecting  and  edu- 
cating officers,  but  the  learning  and  zeal  of  the  majority  of  the 
officers  is  said  to  leave  much  to  be  desired.  Promotions  are  not 
regulated  by  law,  nor  are  there  any  rules  governing  them  ;  promo- 
tion depends  upon  the  degree  of  favor  the  individual  officer  enjoys. 

After  the  arrival  of  the  German  officers  who,  on  entering  the 
Turkish  service  had  to  quit  the  German  army,  it  was  proposed  to 
establish  for  each  arm  a  model  regiment  for  the  training  of  troops 
by  proper  instruction.  This  measure,  however,  has  been  put  into 
eliect  by  the  artillery  only,  which  arm  is  particularly  cultivated  in 
the  Turkish  army,  the  Prussian  drill  regulations  having  been  in- 
troduced in  the  field  artillery  since  1838  ;  they  are  now  supplanted 
by  the  new  German  regulations. 

The  infantry  is  at  present  being  newly  armed  with  the  rifle  model 
of  1887,  calibre  9.5  mm.,  which  is  in  the  main  identical  with  the 
German  rifle  model  of  1884.  The  rifles  are  furnished  by  a  German 
factory  which  turns  out  320  rifles  daily.  The  total  number  of 
rifles  of  the  new  construction  was  stated  in  the  spring  of  1890 
to  be  125,000;  at  present  the  new  armament  should  be  nearly 
completed. 

The  training  of  the  infantry  and  cavalry  is  said  to  be  inefficient, 
yet  the  continual  fights  against  robber-bands  and  the  guard  serv- 
ice on  the  frontiers  offer  opportunities  for  acquiring  a  certain 
routine  as  to  the  operations  of  a  guerilla  war. 

The  perfection  of  the  army  organization  and  the  training  of 
the  troops  according  to  modern  principles  will  remain  an  impossi- 
bility as  long  as  the  fundamental  conditions  of  the  same — a  well- 
regulated  commonwealth  — do  not  exist.  The  proposed  reorganiza- 
tion of  the  army  has  to  contend  forever  with  religious  and  national 
peculiarities,  and  the  time  is  not  discernible  when  it  shall  be  accom- 
plished.    There  is  also  a  want  of  the  necessary  financial  means. 

The  army  expenses  for  the  Turkish  fiscal  year  1889-90  (^.  e. 


424  THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE 

from  March  13,  1889,  to  the  same  date  of  1890)  amounted  to 
about  650,000  Turkish  pounds. 

A  number  of  Turkish  officers  have  spent  some  time  in  Germany 
in  order  to  acquire  a  proper  knowledge  of  the  service,  and  they  are 
said  to  have  proved  quite  efficient  after  their  return  home,  and  to 
have  done  credit  to  their  "  Prussian  schooHng." 

Owing  to  the  splendid  physical  qualities  of  her  people,  Turkey 
is  possessed  of  very  able  and  useful  elements  for  a  good  army; 
and  it  cannot  be  denied  that,  compared  with  the  past,  and  consid- 
dering  the  many  adverse  circumstances,  the  Turkish  army  is  in  a 
state  of  advancement,  and  the  German  Emperor  on  his  visit  to 
Constantinople  warmly  praised  the  Turkish  army  in  this  regard. 

Turkey  does  not  appear  to  be  prepared  for  an  offensive  war, 
but  for  the  defence  of  her  present  possessions  her  array  is  suffi- 
ciently strong  and  well  armed,  and  its  defeat  in  the  campaign  of 
1877-78  was  brought  about  only  after  long  fighting  and  great 
sacrifices  on  the  part  of  the  Russian  army. 

II. — BULGARIA 

The  perpetual  financial  difficulties  of  united  Bulgaria  and  East- 
ern Roumelia  cannot  remain  without  influence  on  the  strength, 
armament,  and  equipment  of  her  army.  It  must  be  admitted,  nev- 
ertheless, that  since  Prince  Ferdinand's  ascendency  to  the  throne 
the  country  has  undoubtedly  made  progress,  which  has  extended 
also  to  her  military  affairs. 

While  the  peace  strength  of  the  army  at  the  close  of  1889  was 
in  round  numbers  34,000  men  and  1580  officers,  the  war  strength 
amounts  to  165,000  men,  including  the  militia  which,  however, 
owing  to  defective  training  and  armament,  is  hardly  fit  for  imme- 
diate employment  in  a  campaign. 

The  term  of  service  commences  with  the  20th,  and  ends  with  the 
45th  year,  and  only  actual  physical  inability  exempts  from  service. 
The  term  of  service  in  the  active  army  is  2  years  in  the  infantry  ; 
in  the  other  arms  3  years ;  in  the  reserve  8,  respectively  5 ;  in  the 
first  levy  of  the  Landwehr  7,  in  the  second  levy  8  years.  There 
are  annually  enlisted  from  16,000  to  18,000  recruits. 

It  is  proposed  to  arm  the  infantry  with  the  Austrian  Manlicher 
repeating  rifle  of  8  mm.  calibre,  and  orders  for  60,000  rifles  of 
this  model  have  already  been  placed  in  Austrian  factories.  At 
present  the  infantry  is  still  armed  with  rifles  of  different  systems.; 
the  supply  of  ammunition  is  also  said  to  be  insufficient. 


THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE  425 

Great  difficulty  and  expense  is  experienced  in  supplying  service- 
able horses,  since  no  efforts  whatever  are  made  for  the  improve- 
ment of  domestic  horse-breeding.  In  case  of  war  the  supply  of 
the  necessary  demand  for  horses  must  cause  insurmountable  diffi- 
culties. 

In  regard  to  the  esprit  de  corps  and  the  loyalty  of  the  Bulgarian 
officers  towards  their  war  lord  a  conclusive  judgment  can  scarcely 
be  rendered  at  present,  although  in  the  campaign  against  Servia, 
under  the  brave  lead  of  their  former  Prince  Alexander,  officers  as 
well  as  men  have  shown  themselves  capable  and  efficient.  Deplo- 
rable excesses,  however,  committed  by  individual  officers  up  to  the 
latest  time,  seem  to  demonstrate  the  presence  in  the  Bulgarian  offi- 
cers' corps  of  elements  which  do  not  keep  the  faith  due  their 
prince  and  war  lord. 

The  army  in  peace  is  formed  of  6  infantry  brigades  with  2  reg- 
iments each  at  2  battalions ;  4  cavalry  regiments  at  4  escadrons 
each  and  1  body-guard  escadron  ;  3  artillery  brigades  of  2  regi- 
ments each  with  4  batteries ;  4  batteries  of  mountain  artillery,  with 
only  2  guns  each ;  1  pioneer  regiment,  and  1  siege  battery. 

In  war  the  infantry  regiments  are  to  be  formed  of  4  battalions 
each,  which  are  to  be  completed  by  militia  troops ;  at  the  same 
time  the  number  of  batteries  is  to  be  increased,  and  4  reserve 
escadrons  are  to  be  formed. 

III. SERVIA 

The  abdication  of  King  Milan  in  favor  of  his  fourteen-year  old 
son,  March  6,  1889,  could  not  pass  without  visible  effect  on  the 
development  and  spirit  of  the  army,  neither  could  the  latter  be 
benefited  by  the  reduction  of  the  standing  army  and  the  return  to 
the  militia  system,  which  was  begun  by  a  radical  government. 
These  measures  created  lively  dissatisfaction  among  the  Servian 
corps  of  officers,  which  was  given  expression  by  manifold  demon- 
strations against  the  State  administration. 

The  ruined  finances  of  the  country,  which,  however,  have  im- 
proved in  the  course  of  the  latest  years,  and  the  continual  revolu- 
tions in  the  political  life,  could  not  but  be  an  impediment  of  a 
prosperous  development  of  the  military  affairs,  so  much  the  more 
as  the  standing  army  is  about  to  be  transformed  into  a  national 
militia,  the  martial  efficiency  of  which  is  even  doubted  in  leading 
Servian  circles.  The  preparations  for  the  abolishment  of  the 
standing  army  and  for  a  "  general  armament  of  the  people  "  have 


426  THE  MILITARY  SITUATION  IN  EUROPE 

already  been  made  and  appropriate  action  ordered.  It  is  true  that 
by  this  change  the  defensive  power  in  case  of  war  will  be  consid- 
erably increased  in  numbers,  but  at  the  same  time  its  military 
qualities  will  deteriorate  in  a  great  measure. 

The  foundation  of  the  army  organization  is  the  cadre  system  in 
conjunction  with  the  institution  of  a  national  militia.  Every  cit- 
izen is  liable  to  personal  service  from  his  20th  to  his  50th  year ; 
nominally  he  belongs  for  10  years  to  the  regular  army  and  for  20 
years  to  the  militia.  Yet  the  army  consists  of  but  weak  peace 
formations,  in  which  those  liable  to  service  receive  their  military 
training  within  a  few  months.  The  cavalrymen,  who  have  to  pro- 
vide and  maintain  their  own  horses,  are  taken  exclusively  from  the 
better  situated  classes  of  the  population. 

The  country  is  divided  into  5  division,  15  regimental,  and  60 
battalion  circuits ;  the  permanent  peace  cadre  consists  of  5  infan- 
try, 3  cavalry,  and  5  field  artillery  regiments  of  6  battalions  each, 
1  battalion  garrison  artillery,  1  pioneer,  and  1  engineer  battalion. 

In  case  of  war  each  division  circuit  puts  up  three  divisions,  one 
each  of  the  first,  second,  and  third  levy  ;  so  that,  inclusive  of  those 
troops  which  do  not  belong  to  the  division  formation,  the  army 
will  reach,  according  to  official  statements,  a  total  strength  of  185 
battalions,  39  escadrons,  and  402  field-guns.  The  army  on  war 
footing  numbers  5000  officers  and  150,000  men. 

IV. ROUMANIA 

The  Roumanian  army  has  kept  up  the  reputation  for  military 
efficiency  acquired  in  the  campaign  of  ISTV-'JS,  also  during  peace 
time  by  its  restless  strife  towards  perfection  in  all  military  branches. 
Her  financial  afi^airs  being  in  satisfactory  condition,  Roumania  is 
able  to  meet  the  increased  demands  made  by  the  military  force  on 
the  financial  resources  of  the  State.  The  army  appropriation  in 
1889  amounted  to  34,500,000  francs,  and  it  is  continually  in- 
creasing:. 

The  Organization  Act  of  1882  divides  the  military  forces  into 
the  standing  army  and  the  territorial  army.  The  latter  is  adapted 
in  its  organization  to  the  conditions  of  the  country,  and  is  com- 
posed in  peace  time  of  a  number  of  trunk  companies  and  trunk 
escadrons,  the  cadres  of  which  attend  to  the  training  of  recruits. 
There  is  a  trunk  company  to  each  of  the  66  battalions  which  form 
the  33  regiments  of  infantry  {dorohanzen) ;  the  cavalry  of  the  ter- 
ritorial army   numbers   12   regiments,  called   kalaraschi,  each  of 


THE  MILITARY  SITUATION  IN  EUROPE  427 

which  has  one  or  two  trunk  escadrons.  All  troops  of  the  territo- 
rial army  are  distributed  in  peace  among  4  army  corps ;  a  5th 
army  corps  is  about  being  organized. 

The  standing  army  is  composed  of  8  infantry  regiments,  4  jager 
battalions — total,  20  battalions ;  3  cavalry  regiments ;  8  artillery 
regiments  with  49  foot  and  8  horse  batteries ;  4  companies  garri- 
son artillery  ;  6  battalions  technical  troops,  and  4  train  escadrons. 

The  service  liability  commences  with  the  21st  and  ends  with 
the  46tli  year.  The  term  of  active  service  is,  for  the  permanent 
troops,  3;  dorobanzen,  5;  kalaraschi,  4  years;  the  latter  are  re- 
cruited for  the  greater  part  from  among  owners  of  horses  who  are 
lit  for  cavalry  service.  The  first-named  are  granted  leave  of  ab- 
sence after  doing  service  satisfactorily  for  two  years.  Those  en- 
rolled in  the  dorobanzen  regiments  receive  a  preliminary  training 
of  two  months'  duration,  after  which  they  may  be  called  out  dur- 
ing the  three  years  following  once  a  month  for  drilling  exercises 
of  one  week's  duration  each.  Every  Roumanian  stays  in  active 
service  and  in  the  reserve  for  8  years,  in  the  militia  8  years,  and 
9  more  in  the  Landsturm. 

In  case  of  war  in  each  of  the  four  army  corps  districts  one 
army  corps  is  to  be  formed  jointly  from  troops  of  the  standing 
and  territorial  army.  An  army  corps  consists  of  2  infantry  di- 
visions with  1  line  regiment  and  4  dorobanzen  regiments,  1  kala- 
raschi brigade,  1  artillery  brigade,  and  1  engineer  battalion  each. 
Apart  from  this  it  is  proposed  to  form  an  independent  cavalry 
division  from  the  active  cavalry  regiments. 

The  war  strength  of  the  Roumanian  army  is  in  round  numbers 
200,000  men. 

The  corps  of  officers  is  said  to  give  satisfaction  as  to  spirit  and 
conduct;  the  training,  similar  to  that  in  the  German  army,  is 
based  on  rational  principles. 

At  present  the  infantry  is  still  armed  with  the  Henry-Martini 
rifle,  which  has  not  been  surpassed  by  any  other  single-loader,  but 
it  is  proposed  to  improve  the  same  by  attaching  a  repeating  ap- 
paratus, which  change  may  have  been  effected  by  this  time.  The 
material  of  the  artillery  issued  from  the  Krupp  factories. 

Roumania  strives  to  promote  and  secure  an  independence  and 
power  not  only  by  the  reorganization  of  the  army,  but  also  by 
building  fortifications.  The  centre  of  the  country's  defence  shall 
be  created  by  fortifying  Bucharest  in  grand  style,  so  that  this 
capital  will  be  transformed  into  a  large  fortified  camp,  suitable  as 
a  basis  of  operations  for  an  army  of  200,000  men.     It  is  expected 


428  THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE 

that  the  erection  of  the  18  detached  forts  with  iron  -  clad  pivot- 
turrets  armed  with  small  -  calibre  rapid-firing  guns  will  be  fin- 
ished within  three  years.  There  is  planned,  moreover,  the  estab- 
lishment of  a  fortification  line  from  the  Black  Sea  up  and  along 
the  Danube  for  the  purpose  of  repelling  the  advance  of  an  enemy 
from  Moldavia  in  a  southerly  direction.  The  total  expenses  of 
the  erection  of  these  fortifications  are  estimated  at  100,000,000 
francs,  and  distributed  over  a  period  of  three  years.  This  sum 
was  appropriated  without  opposition  by  the  Legislature  in  truly 
patriotic  spirit,  and  in  acknowledgment  of  the  fact  that  the  ques- 
tion of  national  independence  was  at  stake. 

All  these  measures  indicate  that  the  military  affairs  of  Roumania 
are  in  a  progressive  state  of  development,  and  that  her  army  will 
be  able  to  take  a  decisive  part  in  martial  events  into  which  Rouma- 
nia may  be  easily  intricated  owing  to  her  geographical  situation, 
and  in  spite  of  repeatedly  renewed  assurances  of  observing  a  strict 
neutrality  in  all  cases. 

If,  as  may  be  presumed,  such  neutrality  cannot  be  maintained, 
there  is  no  doubt  which  side  in  case  of  war  the  Roumanian  military 
forces  will  embrace.  Roumania  has  not  yet  forgotten  the  fact 
that  her  alliance  with  Russia  during  the  campaign  against  Turkey 
has  cost  her  a  most  valuable  province. 

V. GREECE 

The  Hellenic  empire  has  likewise,  by  the  Act  of  1887,  introduced 
the  general  liability  to  service,  but  it  does  not  appear  that  the  mar- 
tial spirit  of  its  people  has  thereby  been  influenced  in  a  favorable 
way.  The  service  liability  begins  with  the  21st  year,  and  continues 
for  29  years.  The  term  of  service  is  2  years  (mostly  a  still  shorter 
period)  in  the  standing  army,  8  in  the  reserve,  18  in  the  Landwehr 
and  its  reserves.  Those  not  enrolled  in  the  active  army,  because 
of  being  above  the  requisite  number,  enter  the  Ersatz  reserve.  They 
receive  their  military  training  during  a  period  of  only  3  months, 
are  at  the  disposal  of  the  War  Minister,  and  have  to  pay  a  military 
tax  varying  in  proportion  to  their  individual  income,  between 
100  and  1000  drachmas.  No  provision  is  made  for  the  formation 
of  the  Landwehr  and  its  reserve,  which  are  called  out  m  case  of 
war  only. 

The  peace  footing  of  the  army  is  28,000  men,  and  consists  of 
10  infantry  regiments  and  8  jager  battalions,  one  of  the  three  bat- 
talions of  each  regiment  being,  however,  merely  formed  en  cadre. 


THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE  429 

The  same  is  the  case  with  2  of  the  jagcr  battalions.  The  cavah-y 
numbers  3  regiments  with  12  escadrons,  the  artillery  3  regiments 
with  14  battalions.  Besides,  there  is  1  engineer  regiment  and  1 
train  company.  The  total  fighting  force  which  Greece  is  able  to 
put  up  in  case  of  war  may  reach  the  number  of  200,000  men,  of 
whom  the  greater  part,  however,  have  received  only  very  defective 
military  training.  Conduct,  training  —  which  latter  is  moulded 
after  the  French  regulations — and  quality  of  troops  are  said  to 
deserve  now  a  more  favorable  criticism  than  in  former  years. 


B. — The  Armies  of  the  Pyrenean  Peninsula 

I. SPAIN 

The  military  affairs  of  Spain  were,  up  to  the  time  of  King  Al- 
fonso's ascendency,  by  whose  premature  death  the  country  and  the 
army  suffered  an  irredeemable  loss,  in  a  bad  condition.  The  army 
was  not  the  safest  support  of  the  throne  and  country,  and  the  war 
lord  could  not  absolutely  rely  upon  his  generals  and  troops,  who 
frequently  enacted  military  revolts  called  "  Pronunciamientos." 

Not  until  1878  was  a  regular  army  constitution  introduced  by 
King  Alfonso,  which,  however,  has  been  subject  to  many  changes 
during  the  last  years,  and  the  reorganization  of  military  affairs  has 
not  been  perfected  to  this  day. 

Although  the  general  liability  to  service  has  been  introduced, 
exemption  from  service  can  be  secured  under  certain  conditions  on 
payment  of  a  sum  of  1200  francs,  and  in  time  of  peace  dispensa- 
tions are  granted  to  a  great  extent,  also  from  domestic  considera- 
tions. The  term  of  active  service  is  nominally  6  years,  but  the 
soldiers  are  kept  in  the  ranks  for  only  2  years,  and  often  for  a  still 
shorter  period.  Six  years  more  the  men  belong  to  the  second 
reserve,  while  all  those  not  enrolled  are  classed  as  "  disposable 
recruits,"  who,  after  a  very  short  military  training,  can  be  used 
for  strengthening  the  army  in  case  of  war. 

The  kingdom  is  divided  into  14  military  districts  with  68  mili- 
tary zones.  In  each  of  the  latter  there  are  organic  bodies  for  re- 
cruiting, administration  of  depots,  and  reserves.  Each  district  is 
under  the  command  of  a  general,  called  "  captain-general." 

The  Spanish  land  force  is  divided  into  the  peninsular  army  and 
the  colonial  troops.  The  completion  and  administration  of  the 
latter  is  specially  provided  for. 


430  THE  MILITARY  SITUATION  IN  EUROPE 

The  peninsular  army  was  formed  in  the  spring  of  1891  of  61  line 
regiments  and  2  battalions,  22  jager  battalions,  28  cavalry  regiments 
with  a  total  of  112  escadrons,  74  horse,  12  foot  and  mountain  bat- 
teries, 9  garrison  artillery  battalions  with  42  companies,  1  siege 
artillery  regiment,  and  11  battalions  technical  troops  (engineer, 
pontonier,  railway,  and  telegraph  formations). 

The  colonial  army  consisted  of  the  troops  for  the  islands  of 
Cuba,  Porto  Rico,  and  the  Philippine  Islands,  altogether  number- 
ing 35,000  men. 

The  annually  changing  quota  of  recruits  averages  48,000  men, 
and  the  peace  strength  of  the  peninsular  army,  which  has  been 
steadily  decreasing  of  late  years,  may  be  put  at  70,000  men  ;  the 
number  of  officers,  the  majority  of  whom  are  either  on  half-pay  or 
a  la  suite  without  pay,  by  far  exceeds  the  demand. 

The  unfavorable  condition  of  the  country's  finances  has  been  an 
obstacle  to  the  repeatedly  proposed  systematic  reorganization  of 
the  army — general  and  personal  liability  to  service  without  excep- 
tion, organization  of  higher  tactical  formations,  which  are  now 
missing  altogether,  and  an  increase  of  the  peace  strength  of  the 
troops.  Nevertheless  it  must  be  acknowledged  that  under  the 
reign  of  Queen  Christina,  apart  from  the  progressing  develop- 
ment in  some  heretofore  badly  neglected  branches  of  training, 
the  military  spirit  and  the  loyalty  to  the  flag  have  improved. 

The  question  of  the  new  armament  of  the  infantry  has  not  yet 
passed  the  experimental  stage  ;  the  infantry  so  far  still  carries  the 

11  mm.  Remington  single-loader. 

II.  —  PORTUGAL 

The  general  and  personal  liability  to  service  was  introduced  in 
Portugal  by  the  Act  of  September  12,  1887,  with  the  modification, 
however,  that  substitution  is  permitted  not  only  between  brothers, 
but  also  between  members  of  the  same  community  and  of  the  same 
annual  levy.  Exempt  from  service  in  time  of  peace  are  also  those 
officially  certified  as  supporters  of  families,  members  of  clergical 
orders,  and  students  of  higher  educational  institutions.  Those 
belonging  to  the  latter  category  are  entered  at  once  into  the  "  sec- 
ond reserve."  The  one-year  volunteers'  institution,  although  hav- 
ing been  adopted  by  law,  is  applied  merely  to  such  as  enlisted 
voluntarily  before  reaching  the  age  of  service  liability.  All  those 
having  been  drawn,  but  not  enrolled,  have  to  pay  a  military  tax  of 

12  marks  for  every  year  during  the  term  of  their  liability. 


THE  MILITARY   SITUATION   IN  EUROPE  431 

The  latter,  beginning  with  the  20th  year,  continues  for  12 
years :  3  years  in  the  ranks  (which  term  is  frequently  abridged 
for  economical  reasons),  5  years  in  the  "  first "  and  4  years  in 
the  "  second "  reserve.  The  number  of  men  of  the  latter  class 
who  receive  no  military  training  amounts  to  from  10,000  to  11,000 
annually. 

The  territory  comprising  the  kingdom  proper,  the  Azores  and 
Madeira  Islands,  is  divided  into  36  recruiting  districts  correspond- 
ing with  the  infantry  and  jager  regiments,  and  among  which  also 
the  remaining  arms  are  distributed.  The  extra-European  posses- 
sions are  garrisoned  by  the  colonial  army,  formed  beside  a  colonial 
regiment  of  numerous  native  troops,  which,  however,  do  not  come 
into  consideration  in  case  of  a  war  in  Europe. 

The  army  has  a  peace  strength  of  1950  officers  and  24,700  men, 
and  consists  of  24  line  and  12  jager  regiments,  3  regiments  of  field, 
2  of  garrison  artillery,  and  1  engineer  regiment.  The  annual  en- 
listment is  13,000  men,  the  war  strength  in  round  numbers  125,000 
men  and  264  guns. 

The  new  armament  of  the  infantry  with  the  8  mm.  Cropatschek 
repeating  rifie,  which  was  ordered  in  1886,  has  apparently  not  yet 
been  effected.  The  artillery  is  armed  with  guns  of  Krupp's  con- 
struction. The  training  of  the  troops  is  based  on  rational  princi- 
ples, and  is  stated  to  be  satisfactory. 

The  great  and  strongly  armed  fortifications  near  Lisbon  are  be- 
ing continually  improved,  the  establishment  of  new  fortification 
lines  is  also  contemplated,  so  that  as  far  as  fortification  is  con- 
cerned, the  country's  defensive  institutions  are  in  good  condition. 

C. — Switzerland 

The  army  organization  of  Switzerland  differs  essentially  from 
the  system  prevailing  in  other  countries.  This  is  owing  to  the  se- 
curity of  her  territorial  possessions  guaranteed  by  treaties  of  the 
Great  Powers,  yet  this  neutrality  can  only  be  maintained  if  Swit- 
zerland is  able  to  prevent  by  force  of  arms  any  invasion  of  foreign 
troops  that  may  be  attempted  for  the  purpose  of  passing  through 
her  territory.  This  conntry  is  therefore  in  a  position  to  adopt  a 
system  of  defence  which,  while  offering  the  advantage  of  great 
cheapness  and  requiring  but  a  very  small  peace  army  for  the  train- 
ing by  cadres  of  all  citizens  liable  to  service  in  the  militant  art, 
at  the  same  time  permits  the  formation  of  a  strong  army  in  case 
of  war.     The  highest  military  authority  is  exercised  by  the  military 


432  THE  MILITARY   SITUATION  IN  EUROPE 

department  of  the  Swiss  Federation,  to  which  are  subject  the  mili- 
tary authorities  of  the  several  cantons. 

All  able-bodied  men  liable  to  service  receive  military  training. 
This  is  rendered  in  the  first  place  in  the  recruit-schools  for  a  period 
varying  according  to  the  different  arras  from  45  to  80  days,  by 
instructors  who  have  also  to  supervise  the  repetition  courses. 
For  the  latter  the  men  are  called  out  every  third  or  fourth  year 
for  11  to  15  days,  the  officers  more  frequently  and  for  a  longer 
period. 

Of  the  total  of  30  years'  liability,  13  years'  service  is  to  be  ren- 
dered in  the  division  [Auszug),  12  in  the  Landwehr,  5  in  the  Land- 
sturra.  To  the  latter  belong  all  able-bodied  Swiss  citizens  from 
the  age  of  17  to  50  years  who  have  not  been  enrolled  in  or  dis- 
charged from  one  of  the  other  categories.  The  officers  are  liable 
to  service  in  the  Landsturm  up  to  the  age  of  55  years. 

Those  exempt  from  service  have  to  pay  a  military  tax,  the 
amount  of  which  is  especially  determined  in  every  individual  case. 

Officers  receive  their  first  training  in  the  officers'  preparatory 
schools,  after  which  they  pass  through  special  educational  courses; 
for  the  training  of  non-commissioned  officers  appropriate  schools 
have  recently  been  established  in  every  division  circuit.  The  mili- 
tary efficiency  of  the  people  is  practically  promoted  by  the  military 
training  of  the  male  youth  in  cadet  schools  and  other  educational 
institutions,  by  volunteer  sharpshooters'  associations,  and  by  offi- 
cers' meetings  devoted  to  scientific  discussions.  The  number  of 
professional  soldiers  is  very  small.  Apart  from  the  corps  of  in- 
struction, which  has  again  been  enlarged  in  1892,  there  are  kept 
permanently  in  service  officers  of  the  several  staffs,  chiefs-of-arms 
for  the  several  arms,  and  officials  for  clerical  and  administrative 
work. 

The  country  is  divided  into  8  division  circuits.  Each  circuit 
shall  form  one  army  division  (^«S2«<^)  composed  of  12  battalions 
infantry,  1  schutzen  battalion,  1  regiment  dragoons  of  3  escadrons, 
1  artillery  brigade  with  6  batteries,  1  engineer  battalion,  and  the 
requisite  number  of  trains  and  columns.  The  Landwehr  troops 
are  to  be  formed  in  similar  manner  in  8  divisions,  so  that  10  divis- 
ions can  be  put  up  altogether,  the  war  strength  of  which  may  be 
estimated  at  not  less  than  200,000  men. 

A  new  small-calibre  repeating  rifle  was  introduced  in  1889,  about 
the  construction  of  which  no  particular  data  are  given.  The  equip- 
ment of  the  infantry  with  the  new  rifle  will  require  some  time; 
12,500,000  francs  were  for  this  purpose  inserted  in  the  budget  for 


THE  MILITARY   SITUATION   IN  EUROPE  433 

1892.  The  unity  gun  of  tlie  field  artillery  is  an  8.4  centimetres 
cast-steel  ring  gun  of  the  Krupp  system;  the  garrison  artillery, 
which  is  composed  of  25  companies,  and  not  included  in  the  divis- 
ion formation,  has  also  been  fitted  out  with  new  guns.  The  new 
fortification  works,  intended  in  the  first  place  to  secure  the  St. 
Gothard  position,  have,  in  the  course  of  the  last  years,  made  rapid 
strides  towards  completion. 

It  is  difficult  to  render  a  correct  judgment  of  the  martial  efficien- 
cy of  the  Swiss  army,  but  the  military  qualifications  of  her  people, 
the  devotion  of  each  individual  to  his  country,  the  fine  armament 
and  practical  formation  of  the  troops,  justify  the  opinion  that  the 
army  of  Switzerland,  its  short  time  of  training  and  exercising  not- 
withstanding, is  able  to  successfully  repel  from  her  borders  an  en- 
emy who  does  not  respect  her  neutrality.  In  such  cases  the  army 
would  derive  great  benefit  from  the  peculiarities  of  the  territory, 
the  geographical  formation  of  the  country,  and  the  new  fortifica- 
tions. 


D. — The  Empires  of  the  North 

I. SWEDEN 

Time  has  matured  in  Sweden  a  military  constitution  radically 
differing  from  that  of  other  European  States,  but  adapted  to  the 
peculiar  conditions  of  a  thinly  settled  country. 

The  army  is  divided  into  the  hired  troops  of  the  "  distributed 
army  ;"  the  Indelta  army  ;  the  Bevdrung,  a  sort  of  reserve  intended 
for  completing  the  two  first-named  categories;  and  the  Landsturm. 
The  troops  hired  in  consideration  of  a  bounty  form  the  stock  of 
the  army,  and  are  distributed  in  peace  among  2  infantry,  2  cavalr}^ 
and  3  artillery  regiments,  with  a  total  number  of  9000  men.  The 
term  of  active  service  is  from  2  to  6  years,  but  may  be  lengthened. 
The  Indelta  army  is  formed  of  drafted  recruits  who  are  called  in 
for  training  for  a  period  of  120  days  in  the  first  year  of  their  serv- 
ice, and  of  50  days  in  the  second,  while  the  men  of  the  Beviirung 
receive  but  little  military  scliooling. 

For  the  purpose  of  completing  the  army,  the  country  is  divided 
into  recruiting  districts,  the  size  of  which  depends  upon  the  num- 
ber of  inhabitants  and  the  apportionment  of  civil  and  military  au- 
thorities. Each  district  is  divided  again  into  battalion  and  com- 
pany districts,  and  corresponds  with  an  infantry  regiment  or  an 
independent  battalion. 

28 


434  THE   MILITARY  SITUATION  IN   EUROPE 

The  troops  are  distributed  among  6  military  districts,  in  each  of 
which  there  are  4  infantry  regiments  and  1  independent  battalion, 
also  5  (in  the  1st  and  2d  district  only  2)  escadrons ;  besides, 
there  are  2  regiments  of  10  escadrons  each  in  Schoonen,  which  may 
be  employed  as  independent  cavalry.  The  artillery  is  formed  in 
3  regiments,  the  engineer  troops  in  2  battalions.  The  peace  etat 
of  all  the  above-named  organizations  is  very  small,  except  during 
the  period  of  recruit  drilling  and  of  larger  field  exercises. 

The  long  ventilated  question  of  a  new  armament  for  the  in- 
fantry has  been  brought  nearer  its  solution  by  the  order  issued 
in  1889  for  the  reconstruction  of  the  old  rifles  by  furnishing 
them  with  new  8  mm.  calibre  barrels,  and  changing  the  old-lock 
mechanism  into  repeating  rifles. 

Material,  clothing,  and  equipment  of  the  artillery  is  considered 
to  be  good,  but  the  time  for  training  too  short ;  a  want  is  felt, 
also,  of  professional  ofiicers  and  suitable  non-commissioned  ofti- 
cers.  The  Swedish  army  is,  therefore,  hardly  fit  for  greater  deeds 
than  the  protection  of  the  country  against  a  hostile  invasion. 

II. NORWAY 

Although  united  since  1814  with  her  larger  neighbor,  Sweden, 
by  the  so-called  personal  union,  Norway's  military  affairs  have 
recently  taken  a  very  peculiar  turn  which,  even  in  the  minds  of 
Norwegians,  does  not  permit  of  favorable  conclusions  as  to  the  effi- 
ciency of  the  army.  By  the  new  military  law  of  June  16,  1885, 
the  number  of  annual  classes  of  the  line  has  been  reduced  from 
7  to  5,  and  the  period  allowed  for  training,  too  short  before,  has 
been  at  the  same  time  still  more  abridged.  The  term  of  service 
in  the  Landwehr  and  Landsturm  is  4  years.  The  enlisted  men 
are  discharged  after  a  short  service  in  the  ranks,  after  which  they 
are  repeatedly  called  out  for  services  of  short  duration. 

Since  the  new  organization,  the  army  is  formed  of  three  levies — 
the  line,  the  Landwehr,  and  the  Landsturm.  The  three  levies  are 
in  all  arms  uniformly  equii)ped,  clothed,  and  armed,  probably, 
however,  on  paper  only. 

The  infantry  consists  of  5  brigades  of  equal  strength,  each 
comprising  4  corps,  and  each  of  the  latter  being  composed  of  1 
line,  1  Landwehr,  and  1  Landsturm  battalion.  In  the  Christiania 
brigade,  a  section  of  guards  is  included,  numbering  168  men,  and 
assigned  to  garrison  duty  at  the  capital.  Each  corps  is  commanded 
by  the  chief  of  its  line  battalion.     The  cavalry  is  divided  into  3 


THE  MILITARY  SITUATION  IN  EUROPE  435 

corps  of  three  levies  of  2  to  3  escadrons  each,  but  considering  the 
scarcity  of  riding-horses  in  Norway,  it  is  questionable  whether  all 
escadrons  can  be  formed.  The  artillery  is  composed  of  3  corps 
having  1  line,  1  Landwehr,  and  1  Landsturm  battery  each,  and  1 
fort  and  mountain  artillery  corps  with  2  batteries  of  each  levy. 
A  similiar  formation  is  given  the  engineer  corps,  which  is  unpro- 
portionally  strong. 

Officers  are  educated  in  two-year  courses  at  the  military 
school,  with  one  division  each  for  the  officers  permanently  en- 
gaged, and  for  those  liable  to  service  for  a  term  only. 

The  cadres  are  numerically  very  weak;  the  short  time  allowed 
for  exercises  insufficient  for  the  training  of  useful  non-commis- 
sioned officers ;  the  formation  of  the  several  corps  of  line,  Land- 
wehr, and  Landsturm  troops  cannot  be  considered  practical,  so 
that  even  domestic  critics  agree  that  the  Norwegian  army  has  of 
late  been  weakened  rather  than  strengthened  in  numbers  as  well 
as  in  efficiency. 

The  fortifications  for  the  defence  of  the  inner  part  of  the 
Christiania  Sound  and  of  the  capital  will  be  strengthened  and 
armed.  The  erection  of  new  works  to  make  secure  against  at- 
tacks from  the  interior  is  also  proposed. 

Noticeable  and  significant  for  the  military  affairs  of  Norway  is 
the  fact  that  in  Christiania  a  society  has  been  started  with  many 
branches  in  other  parts  of  the  country  for  the  purpose  of  awak- 
ing the  interest  for  the  country's  defence,  and  of  creating  a  proper 
understanding  of  its  necessity.  Bv  private  collections  and  gifts 
a  fund  has  been  raised  and  put  at  the  disposal  of  the  department 
for  the  country's  defence. 

III. DENMARK 

The  foremost  thought  in  organizing  the  country's  defence  and 
military  affairs  has  been  and  still  is  to  secure  and  maintain  the 
neutrality  of  the  State  in  case  of  warlike  complications.  For  this 
reason  Copenhagen  has  recently  been  surrounded  at  her  land  and 
sea  side  with  fortifications  which  are  continually  beinsf  strengthened. 

The  general  liability  to  service  was  introduced  in  1880.  Every 
Dane  capable  of  bearing  arms  is  obliged  to  comply  with  this  duty, 
and  belongs  for  4  years  to  the  line,  4  to  the  reserve,  and  8  to  the 
depots  {Verstdrkung).  The  term  of  service  in  the  ranks  differs, 
and  is  for  some  parts  of  the  contingent  of  recruits  enlisted  on 
every  1st  of  November,  11  months,  for  other  parts  only  5  months; 


436  THE  MILITARY  SITUATION  IN  EUROPE 

in  tlie  cavalry,  however,  20  months.  With  the  exception  of  a 
small  number  of  men,  especially  such  as  are  to  be  trained  for  offi- 
cers and  non-commissioned  officers,  all  men  enlisted  in  the  course 
of  a  year  are  sent  home  on  the  1st  of  October.  Consequent  to 
the  difference  of  the  term  of  service  in  the  ranks  there  is  an  in- 
equality of  the  individual  training,  a  disadvantage  which  cannot 
be  removed  even  by  repeated  calling  out  for  exercises  during  the 
later  years  of  service. 

The  array  consists  of  1  guard  battalion,  5  infantry  brigades  of 
2  regiments,  each  of  the  latter  having  3  line  and  1  depot  ( Ver- 
stdrkung)  battalion,  which  is  formed  only  in  case  of  war  by  the 
men  of  the  Verstdrkung,  5  cavalry  regiments  of  3  escadrons  each, 
2  field  artillery  regiments  with  12  line  and  Verstdrkung  batteries, 
2  fort  artillery  battalions,  and  1  engineer  regiment.  The  total  war 
strength  may  be  stated  as  1500  officers  and  49,000  men.  The 
peace  strength,  however,  is  small  and  subject  to  continual  changes. 

The  number  of  horses  kept  permanently  in  the  cavalry  service 
is  but  small.  The  greater  part  is  "  on  furlough "  during  peace 
time,  and  is  fed  and  employed  at  the  farms. 

The  infantry  is  at  present  being  armed  with  8  mm,  repeating 
rifles. 

There  are  numerous  sharpshooter  societies  organized  on  a 
concurrent  principle,  the  membership  of  which  is  estimated  at 
30,000.  Although  not  belonging  to  the  military  corps,  they  are 
unquestionably  of  a  certain  value  for  the  country's  defence,  as 
they  tend,  "  apart  from  instructing  in  the  manipulation  of  fire- 
arms and  in  athletic  exercises,  to  develop  the  vigor  of  the  people, 
to  rouse  its  energies  for  the  defence  of  the  country,  and  to  pre- 
pare the  youth  for  entering  the  army." 


E. — Beloium  and  the  Netherlands 

The  Netherlands  and  Belgium,  both  States  bordering  on  the 
German  empire,  and  the  last-named  also  on  France,  have  been, 
like  Switzerland,  declared  neutral  by  international  treaties.  They 
maintain,  therefore,  their  armies  for  defensive  purposes  only. 

The  geographical  formation  of  Belgium  renders  it  impossible 
for  this  State  to  remain  inactive  in  case  of  warlike  complications 
between  France  and  Germany,  and  she  will  be  compelled  to  em- 
ploy her  military  forces  for  the  maintenance  of  neutrality.  In 
order  to  meet  these  requirements,  the  Belgium  army  has  during 


THE  MILITARY   SITUATION    IN  EUROPE  437 

the  l;ist  decade  undergone  decided  changes;  but  the  work  of  re- 
organization has  not  yet  been  perfected. 

The  army  is  recruited  from  vokinteers  and  by  levy.  Substitu- 
tion is  permitted  by  paying  a  sum  of  1600  francs,  the  State  pro- 
viding the  substitutes.  The  volunteers  on  entering  the  army 
must  pledge  themselves  for  eight  years'  service ;  but  may  be 
granted  leave  of  absence  after  4  years  whenever  their  total  num- 
ber exceeds  the  fixed  lists  or  etats.  The  levied  men,  of  whom 
only  a  part  is  enrolled,  remain  but  a  short  time  in  the  ranks ;  they 
belong  to  the  active  army  as  miliciens  during  8  years,  but  if  in 
war  times  the  territory  is  threatened,  they  may  be  called  out  for 
5  years  more,  the  respective  annual  classes  being  known  as  "  first 
and  second  reserve." 

The  enlistments  during  the  last  years  amounted  in  average  to  750 
volunteers  and  13,000  recruits.  According  to  the  lists  the  peace 
army,  including  officers,  numbers  50,000  men,  and  consists  of  4  in- 
fantry divisions  with  9  brigades  and  18  regiments  (the  regiments 
having  3  active  and  from  2  to  3  reserve  battalions,  the  latter  being 
formed  only  en  cadre) ;  2  cavalry  divisions  with  8  regiments  of  5 
escadrons  and  a  depot  each ;  4  field  artillery  regiments  with  34 
active  and  14  reserve  and  depot  batteries;  4  fort  artillery  regi- 
ments with  48  active  batteries ;  and  1  engineer  regiment  of  5  bat- 
talions. 

There  is  at  present  being  introduced  in  the  infantry  a  7.65  mm. 
repeating  rifle ;  the  artillery  is  equipped  with  guns  of  Krupp  con- 
struction. 

Complement  and  training  of  officers  are  considered  satisfactory, 
but  their  number,  especially  in  regard  to  reserve  officers,  is  said 
to  be  insufficient. 

The  main  strength  of  the  defence  of  the  country  does  not  rest 
so  much  in  the  army  as  in  the  fortification  works  which,  of  excel- 
lent construction,  surround  the  important  commercial  centre  of 
Antwerp  and  extend  in  great  numbers  also  along  the  line  of  the 
Meuse.  In  case  of  war  the  garrisoning  of  these  places  will  claim 
the  largest  part  of  the  army.  A  siege  and  capture  of  Antwerp 
would  presumably  offer  unsurmountable  difficulties,  and  without 
the  possession  of  Antwerp  nobody  can  claim  the  mastership  over 
the  country. 

The  array  of  the  Netherlands  is  at  present  likewise  undergoing 
a  thorough  reorganization,  as  the  military  force  in  its  present  con- 
dition does  not  meet  the  requirement  of  "  an  energetic  defence  of 
the  territory  in  case  of  a  war."     It  is  proposed  to  give  the  army, 


438  THE   MILITARY   SITUATION   IN  EUROPE 

by  introducing-  the  general  and  personal  liability  to  service,  a 
strength  of  160,000  men,  including  50,000  men  of  the  Landwehr 
i^Schutlerei),  to  raise  tlie  term  of  service  liability  to  22  years,  and 
to  regulate  the  military  education  of  the  youth. 

Whether  the  Government  shall  succeed  in  practically  perfecting 
those  plans  must  remain  an  open  question  as  long  as  the  institu- 
tion of  general  liability  to  service  does  not  command  the  sympathy 
either  of  the  Legislature  or  of  the  country  at  large.  At  present 
the  land  force  is  composed  of  volunteers  and  militia,  the  latter  re- 
maining but  a  very  limited  time  in  active  service.  This  does  not 
include  the  colonial  army,  in  which  foreigners  serve  in  great  num- 
bers, allured  by  the  high  bounties  offered. 

The  army  is  formed  of  3  divisions  with  3  infantry  regiments 
each ;  1  cavalry  (hussar)  regiment ;  1  field  artillery  regiment,  and 
1  engineer  company.  Distributed  among  4  artillery  and  4  engi- 
neer commands  are  4  fort  artillery  regiments  and  a  number  of  en- 
gineer companies.  Military  commands  exercise  authority  in  time 
of  peace  over  the  3  military  districts,  the  Holland  water-line  and 
the  position  of  Amsterdam. 

The  war  strength  of  the  army  is  at  present  stated  to  be  70,000 
men.  The  infantry  has  been  equipped  recently  with  a  repeating 
rifle  after  the  Italian  Vitali  system,  the  efficiency  of  which  is  gen- 
erally recognized ;  the  artillery  is  in  possession  of  a  quite  large 
number  of  Krupp  guns. 

Apart  from  numerous  coast  batteries  and  fortifications  within 
the  inundation  district,  which  have  been  for  the  greater  part  com- 
pleted, it  is  proposed  to  make  Amsterdam  an  armed  place  of  the 
first  order.  At  present  the  capital  is  surrounded  only  by  provis- 
ional w^orks  which  it  is  intended  to  change  gradually  into  perma- 
nent positions. 

A  general  review  of  the  military  affairs  of  the  States  of  the  sec- 
ond rank  shows  that  with  a  few  exceptions  their  armies  are  in  a 
state  of  progressive  development ;  that  the  expenses  for  defensive 
purposes  are  steadily  increasing ;  that  the  principle  of  general  and 
personal  liability  to  service  has  already  been  or  is  being  enforced, 
and  that  the  armament  of  the  infantry  and  the  material  of  the  ar- 
tillery meets  modern  requirements.  Noticeable  efforts  are  also 
being  made  in  Roumania,  Belgium,  Norway,  the  Netherlands, 
Switzerland,  and  Portugal  to  increase  the  secnritv  and  resisting' 
powers  of  the  States'  territory  by  strengthening  the  fortifications. 


OF  THE 

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